Heterogeneous catalysis: enigmas, illusions, challenges, realities, and emergent strategies of design

Predominantly this article deals with the question of how to design new solid catalysts for a variety of industrial and laboratory-orientated purposes. A generally applicable strategy, illustrated by numerous examples, is made possible based on the use of nanoporous materials on to the (high-area) inner surfaces of which well-defined (experimentally and computationally) active centers are placed in a spatially separated fashion. Such single-site catalysts, which have much in common with metal-centered homogenous catalysts and enzymes, enable a wide range of new catalysts to be designed for a variety of selective oxidations, hydrogenations, hydrations and hydrodewaxing, and other reactions that the "greening" of industrial processes demand. Examples are given of new shape-selective, regio-selective, and enantioselective catalysts, many of which operate under mild, environmentally benign conditions. Also considered are some of the reasons why detailed studies of adsorption and stoichiometric reactions at single-crystal surfaces have, disappointingly, not hitherto paved the way to the design and production of many new heterogeneous catalysts. Recent work of a theoretical and high-throughout nature, allied to some experimental studies of well-chosen model systems, holds promise for the identification of new catalysts for simple, but industrially important reactions.     

Renaissance of immobilized catalysts. New types of polymer-supported catalysts, 'microencapsulated catalysts', which enable environmentally benign and powerful high-throughput organic synthesis

Immobilized catalysts have been reinvestigated from two aspects; as keys to environmentally benign chemical processes and high-throughput organic synthesis for combinatorial chemistry. While most known polymer-supported catalysts are less active than the corresponding original catalysts, new types of polymer-supported catalysts, microencapsulated catalysts, have been developed. The catalysts were immobilized on to polymers using physical envelopment by polymer backbones and interaction between pi electrons of benzene rings of the polystyrenes used as polymer backbones and vacant orbitals of the catalysts. Microencapsulated Sc, Os, Pd and Ru catalysts have been successfully prepared and high activities have been attained. In all cases, no leaching of the catalysts occurred, and the immobilized catalysts were recovered quantitatively by simple filtration and reused without loss of activity. It is noted that this method enables direct immobilization of metals onto polymers, and that normally unstable species such as Pd(0)(PPh3) can be kept stable by this immobilization technique. It is expected that other metal catalysts can be immobilized using this microencapsulation technique.     

The combinatorial approach to asymmetric hydrogenation: phosphoramidite libraries, ruthenacycles, and artificial enzymes

For a more general implementation of asymmetric catalysis in the production of fine chemicals, the screening for new catalysts and ligands must be dramatically accelerated. This is possible with a high-throughput experimentation (HTE) approach. However, implementation of this technology requires the rapid preparation of libraries of ligands/catalysts and consequently dictates the use of simple ligands that can be readily synthesised in a robot. In this concept article, we describe how the development of new ligands based on monodentate phosphoramidites enabled the development of an integral HTE protocol for asymmetric hydrogenation. This "instant ligand library" protocol makes it possible to synthesise 96 ligands in one day and screen them the next day. Further diversity is possible by using mixtures of monodentate ligands. This concept has already led to an industrial application. Other concepts, still under development, are based on chiral ruthenacycles as new transfer hydrogenation catalysts and the use of enzymes as ligands for transition-metal complexes.     

Toward single-site, immobilized molecular catalysts: site-isolated Ti ethylene polymerization catalysts supported on porous silica

A new, general patterning methodology that may allow for the preparation of site-isolated organometallic catalysts on a silica surface is reported. The technique is demonstrated with Group 4 polymerization catalysts. The catalysts synthesized via the patterning method have up to a 10-fold increase in activity as compared to materials prepared by traditional techniques. In addition to supporting Group 4 polymerization catalysts, the patterned aminosilica is a possible support for other metal complexes, allowing for the synthesis of a wide array of immobilized single-site organometallic catalysts.     

In situ IR,NMR, EPR,and UV/Vis Spectroscopy: Tools for New Insight into the Mechanisms of Heterogeneous Catalysis

The development of new solid catalysts for use in industrial chemistry has hitherto been based to a large extent upon the empirical testing of a wide range of different materials. In only a few exceptional cases has success been achieved in understanding the overall, usually very complex mechanism of the chemical reaction through the elucidation of individual intermediate aspects of a heterogeneously catalyzed reaction. With the modern approach of combinatorial catalysis it is now possible to prepare and test much more rapidly a wide range of different materials within a short time and thus find suitable catalysts or optimize their chemical composition. Our understanding of the mechanisms of reactions catalyzed by these materials must be developed, however, by spectroscopic investigations on working catalysts under conditions that are as close as possible to practice (temperature, partial pressures of the reactants, space velocity). This demands the development and the application of new techniques of in situ spectroscopy. This review will show how this objective is being achieved. By the term in situ (Lat.: in the original position) is meant the investigation of the chemical reactions which are taking place as well as the changes in the working catalysts directly in the spectrometer.     

High-valent oxo-molybdenum and oxo-rhenium complexes as efficient catalysts for X-H (X = Si, B, P and H) bond activation and for organic reductions

High-valent oxo-complexes have recently emerged as powerful catalysts for the activation of X-H (X = Si, B, P and H) bonds and for the reduction of several functional groups. This new reactivity represents a complete reversal from the traditional role of these complexes as oxidation catalysts and opened a new research area for high-valent oxo-complexes. This tutorial review highlights the work developed using high-valent oxo-molybdenum and oxo-rhenium complexes as excellent catalysts for X-H (X = Si, B, P and H) bond activation and for organic reductions.     

Inorganic molecular sieves: Preparation,modification and industrial application in catalytic processes

The increasing environmental concern and promotion of “green processes” are forcing the substitution of traditional acid and base homogeneous catalysts by solid ones. Among these heterogeneous catalysts, zeolites and zeotypes can be considered as real “green” catalysts, due to their benign nature from an environmental point of view. The importance of these inorganic molecular sieves within the field of heterogeneous catalysis relies not only on their microporous structure and the related shape selectivity, but also on the flexibility of their chemical composition. Modification of the zeolite framework composition results in materials with acidic, basic or redox properties, whereas multifunctional catalysts can be obtained by introducing metals by ion exchange or impregnation procedures, that can catalyze hydrogenation–dehydrogenation reactions, and the number of commercial applications of zeolite based catalysts is continuously expanding.In this review we discuss determinant issues for the development of zeolite based catalysts, going from zeolite catalyst preparation up to their industrial application. Concerning the synthesis of microporous materials we present some of the new trends moving into larger pore structures or into organic free synthesis media procedures, thanks to the incorporation of novel organic templates or alternative framework elements, and to the use of high-throughput synthesis methods. Post-synthesis zeolite modification and final catalyst conformation for industrial use are briefly discussed.In a last section we give a thorough overview on the application of zeolites in industrial processes. Some of them are well established mature technologies, such as fluid catalytic cracking, hydrocracking or aromatics alkylation. Although the number of zeolite structures commercially used as heterogeneous catalysts in these fields is limited, the development of new catalysts is a continuous challenge due to the need for processing heavier feeds or for increasing the quality of the products. The application of zeolite based catalysts in the production of chemicals and fine chemicals is an emerging field, and will greatly depend on the discovery of new or known structures by alternative, lower cost, synthesis routes, and the fine tuning of their textural properties. Finally, biomass conversion and selective catalytic reduction for conversion of NOx are two active research fields, highlighting the interest in these potential industrial applications.     

Anionic four-electron donor-based palladacycles as catalysts for addition reactions of arylboronic acids with alpha,beta-unsaturated ketones, aldehydes, and alpha-ketoesters

Anionic four-electron donor-based palladacycle-catalyzed 1,4-additions of arylboronic acids with alpha,beta-unsaturated ketones and 1,2-additions of arylboronic acids with aldehydes and alpha-ketoesters are described. Our study demonstrated that palladacycles were highly efficient, practical catalysts for these addition reactions. The work described here not only opened a new paradigm for the application of palladacycles, but may also pave the road for other metalacycles as practically useful catalysts for such addition reactions including asymmetric ones. [reaction: see text].     

双原子催化剂:制备、表征和应用

发展可持续和清洁的电化学能源转化技术是应对能源短缺和环境污染挑战的关键一步,燃料电池、电解电池和金属空气电池作为清洁能源储存和转换装置目前得到广泛应用推广,这些装置依靠电催化反应以及电极材料上发生的电荷转移过程来转换电能和化学能.而电催化剂是该类装置电极材料的核心部件,电催化反应的热力学和动力学过程与电催化剂的物理性质和化学状态密切相关.因此探索和开发性能优良、成本低廉的新型电催化剂,将进一步促进这些能源转化技术的商业化应用.单原子催化剂(SACs)以其暴露的活性位点、高选择性和最大限度地原子利用率而受到人们的广泛关注.然而,随着单原子表面自由能的增加,粒子在制备和催化过程中的聚集,催化活性位点的降低和催化剂负荷的相对较低,严重制约了SACs的发展和应用.考虑到SACs的缺点,为了进一步增加单原子活性位点的数量和负载,双原子催化剂(DACs)作为SACs家族成员的扩展近年来逐渐兴起,且两种金属原子(同核/异核)在DACs中的协同作用显著提高了催化剂的催化活性.本文基于当前最新的研究工作对比了同核/异核DACs的不同优势,列举了一系列包括原子层沉积法、湿化学吸附法以及高温热处理法等方法用于制备性能优异的DACs,其中高温热处理法因应用广泛被重点强调.同时,本文也对DACs的表征和识别手段进行了重点概括,包含XANES, EXAFS, IR, DFT等;详细概括和对比了当前DACs在电化学方面的主要应用,如氧还原反应(ORR)和二氧化碳还原反应.目前, DACs作为一个新兴的研究领域,由于其金属原子负载量高、活性位点比SACs更为灵活,已经在电催化领域取得了快速的发展.相对于同核DACs,原则上不同的两个金属原子会组成更多的异核DACs,因此,对于性能优异的异核DACs还有更多的可能性值得深入探索.可以预见, DACs的发展将弥补SACs的不足,在电化学能源的转换和储存方面发挥全面的优势;借助于异核DACs中不同的两个金属原子的多样性,探索以过渡金属为主的DACs,将会为节约贵金属资源及环境保护带来巨大贡献,进一步设计和优化DACs,有利于燃料电池和金属-空气电池创造出更大的经济效益和社会效益.因此,我们相信DACs的发展将成为材料研究的一个新前沿,并为合成更多的高效应用催化剂开辟一条新的途径.     

Ethylene polymerization studies with supported cyclopentadienyl,arene, and allyl chromium catalysts

Highly active catalysts for low pressure ethylene polymerization are formed when chromocene, bis (benzene)- or bis (cumene)-chromium or tris- or bis (allyl)-chromium compounds are deposited on high surface area silica-alumina or silica supports. Each catalyst type shows its own unique behavior in preparation, polymerization, activity, isomerization, and response to hydrogen as a chain transfer agent. The arene chromium compounds require an acidic support (silicaalumina) or thermal aging with silica to form a highly active catalyst. At 90°C polymerization temperature arene chromium catalysts produced high molecular weight polyethylene and showed, in contrast to supported chromocene catalysts, a much lower response to hydrogen as a chain transfer agent. An increase in polymerization temperature caused a significant decrease in polymer molecular weight. Addition of cyclopentadiene to supported bis (cumene)-chromium catalyst led to a new catalyst which showed a chain transfer response to hydrogen typical of a supported chromocene catalyst. Polymerization activity with tris- or bis (allyl)-chromium appears to depend on the divalent chromium content in the catalyst. Changes in the silica dehydration temperature of supported allyl chromium catalyst have a significant effect on the resulting polymer molecular weight. High molecular weight polymers were formed with catalysts that were prepared using silica dehydration temperatures below about 400°C. Dimers, trimers, and oligomers of ethylene were usually formed with catalysts that were prepared on silica dehydrated much above 400°C. The order of activity of the different types of catalysts was chromocene/silica > chromocene/silica-alumina > bis (arene)-chromium/silica-alumina ? allyl chromium/silica.     

An efficient hybrid, nanostructured, epoxidation catalyst: titanium silsesquioxane-polystyrene copolymer supported on SBA-15

A novel interfacial hybrid epoxidation catalyst was designed with a new immobilization method for homogeneous catalysts by coating an inorganic support with an organic polymer film containing active sites. The titanium silsesquioxane (TiPOSS) complex, which contains a single-site titanium active center, was immobilized successfully by in-situ copolymerization on a mesoporous SBA-15-supported polystyrene polymer. The resulting hybrid materials exhibit attractive textural properties (highly ordered mesostructure, large specific surface area (>380 m2 g-1) and pore volume (>or==0.46 cm3 g-1)), and high activity in the epoxidation of alkenes. In the epoxidation of cyclooctene with tert-butyl hydrogen peroxide (TBHP), the hybrid catalysts have rate constants comparable with that of their homogeneous counterpart, and can be recycled at least seven times. They can also catalyze the epoxidation of cyclooctene with aqueous H2O2 as the oxidant. In two-phase reaction media, the catalysts show much higher activity than their homogeneous counterpart due to the hydrophobic environment around the active centers. They behave as interfacial catalysts due to their multifunctionality, that is, the hydrophobicity of polystyrene and the polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxanes (POSS), and the hydrophilicity of the silica and the mesoporous structure. Combination of the immobilization of homogeneous catalysts on two conventional supports, inorganic solid and organic polymer, is demonstrated to achieve novel heterogeneous catalytic ensembles with the merits of attractive textural properties, tunable surface properties, and optimized environments around the active sites.     

Synthesis, characterization, and visible light activity of new nanoparticle photocatalysts based on silver, carbon, and sulfur-doped TiO2

New nanoparticle photocatalysts based on silver, carbon, and sulfur-doped TiO2 having only the homogeneous anatase crystalline phase and high surface area were successfully synthesized by a modified sol-gel route. The catalysts were characterized by EDX, XRD, BET, UV-vis, IR, and Raman spectroscopy. The effects of the experimental parameters on the visible light reactivity of the catalysts were evaluated for the photodegradation of gaseous acetaldehyde as a model indoor pollutant. The activity results show that the silver(I) ion, Ag(+), doping significantly promotes the visible light reactivities of carbon and sulfur-doped TiO2 catalysts without any phase transformation from anatase to rutile. Moreover, Ag/(C, S)-TiO2 photocatalysts degrade acetaldehyde 10 times faster in visible light and 3 times faster in UV light illuminations than the accredited photocatalyst P25-TiO2. The commendable visible photoactivities of Ag/(C, S)-TiO2 new nanoparticle photocatalysts are predominantly attributable to an improvement in anatase crystallinity, high surface area, low band gap and nature of precursor materials used.     

The development of new monometallic bifunctional catalysts with Lewis acid and Lewis base properties, and their application in asymmetric cyanation reactions

Bifunctional catalysts can drastically improve the efficiency of asymmetric processes with respect to enantioselectivity and/or conversion rate. A new type of chiral bifunctional catalyst has been developed recently in the Shibasaki group that contains both Lewis acid and Lewis base moieties. These monometallic and bifunctional phosphinoyl-containing catalysts are able to coordinate both nucleophilic and electrophilic substrates in the transition state. Several successful applications of this new catalytic concept in the field of asymmetric cyanation reactions have already been reported, for example, the asymmetric hydrocyanation of aldehydes and imines as well as the asymmetric Reissert reaction. The development and principle of this catalytic concept as well as main applications thereof are reviewed in this article.     

Amine-catalyzed addition of azide ion to alpha,beta-unsaturated carbonyl compounds

[formula: see text] A new protocol for the beta-azidation of alpha,beta-unsaturated carbonyl compounds is described. The method employs tertiary amines as catalysts for azide addition. The azide source is a 1:1 mixture of TMSN3 and AcOH. Tertiary amines, either in solution or bound to a solid support, are efficient catalysts for the reaction.     

Hot electron generation on metal catalysts under surface reaction: Principles,devices, and application

Transfer of charge through metal-support interfaces leads to an increase in the activity of mixed catalysts. In this review, we consider the main aspects of research aimed at studying processes that create and allow interphase transfer of highly excited (hot) charge carriers in supported catalysts, and discuss the effect of these phenomena on catalytic activity.     

Halex reactions of aromatic compounds catalysed by 2-azaallenium, carbophosphazenium, aminophosphonium and diphosphazenium salts: a comparative study

An increasing number of biologically active compounds in the pharma and agro-chemical sector contain carbon fluorine bonds. One of the most common methods to introduce fluorine into intermediates is the well-investigated halogen-exchange reaction, in which chloro- and bromoaromatics activated towards nucleophilic substitution, react with a fluoride source to yield the corresponding fluoroarenes. In general, the reaction is supported by phase-transfer catalysts. The use of a new class of very active phase-transfer catalysts gives the possibility of substituting even halogens with weak activation giving a convenient access to interesting compounds that are not available so far and opening up new synthetic routes in Halex chemistry. Our new classes of catalysts, CNC⁺ (1a), PNC⁺ (2a) and several different approaches presented by other groups are described and experimental results discussed.     

过渡金属(Mo,Fe,Co和Ni)基催化剂在电催化还原二氧化碳还原中应用

近年来,全球二氧化碳排放量逐年增加, 对人们赖以生存的生态环境已造成严重威胁, 因此将二氧化碳转化成高附加值的化学品和燃料受到前所未有的广泛关注. 与目前已开发的转化技术(如热催化和光催化等)相比, 电催化二氧化碳转化技术具有稳定的效率?可控的选择性?简单的反应单元和巨大的工业应用潜力, 是一种更为理想的转化技术之一. 从反应动力学来看, 目前的催化剂仍难以克服反应过程中高的能量屏障以及迟缓的反应速度. 另一方面, 电催化二氧化碳转化包含多个质子和电子的耦合过程, 反应过程包含多种路径, 反应产物往往是混合物. 在此背景下, 如何发展高催化效率和高选择性电催化剂成为目前研究的焦点. 在众多的电催化剂中, 贵金属及其合金展现出较高的电催化二氧化碳还原活性, 但储量小的缺点限制了其大规模的工业应用. 铜基材料可以把二氧化碳转化为附加值更高的产品. 然而, 铜基材料仍难以克服选择性差?失活严重和效率低等缺点. 作为一种更廉价的材料, 碳基催化剂具有价廉?比表面积大?导电性好?化学性质稳定以及优异的机械性能等优点在电催化二氧化碳还原中得到了广泛的研究. 然而, 单纯的碳催化剂对于二氧化碳分子活化以及吸附反应中间体能力较低, 导致了碳基材料催化电催化二氧化碳还原活性以及选择性较低. 因此, 开发出可实际应用的高效率和高选择性非贵金属电极材料是当前该技术研究中亟待解决的关键科学问题.过渡金属基化合物在能源转化中展现出巨大的应用潜力. 过渡金属价电子在d轨道, 而d轨道邻近费米能级, d轨道电子填充的变化使得d轨道中心与费米能级相对位置发生变化, 进而展现出多种催化活性. 电催化二氧化碳还原是一个多电子和质子耦合过程, 催化剂的本征活性由其表面电子结构决定. 在此背景下, 过渡金属基化合物价层电子轨道的多变性使其成为提高电催化二氧化碳还原效率和选择性的理想催化剂. 对于电催化二氧化碳还原, 不同中间体的标度关系是制约反应总效率的关键因素. N?rskov等研究发现, MoS2, MoSe2和Ni掺杂 MoS2催化剂上存在不同种类的活性位点. 不同的活性位点可以分别吸附反应中间体并使中间体的吸附过程相对独立, 从而有效打断中间体的标度关系. 2014,Salehi-Khojin等成功把MoS2应用在高效电催化二氧化碳还原中. 边缘Mo原子d带电子靠近费米能级的特性使其具有更高的电催化活性. 其它研究工作者通过引入掺杂物质, 进一步提高了MoS2的电催化二氧化碳还原性能. Fe位点在理论上虽然具有很高的电催化二氧化碳转化活性, 然而目前铁基催化剂的研究相对较少. Co基材料也可用于电催化二氧化碳转化.2016年, Xie等首次制备无机Co基材料用于电催化二氧化碳还原. 部分氧化的钴可以促进速控步骤反应进程, 进而降低整体反应的过电势. 基于此, 制备了超薄的Co3O4片层, 发现价电子轨道中心更靠近费米能级时, 电极材料展现出更高的催化活性. 进一步研究发现氧空穴的存在也可以减小速控步骤的能量屏障. 此外, Ni基材料也被证明具有高的催化二氧化碳转化活性. 目前这些研究工作对如何构建高性能电极材料在理论上给出了指导方向, 并且联系实验证明了方法的可行性. 受到这些工作的启发, 未来可将有巨大潜力的过渡金属基化合物化合物, 例如过渡金属氮化物?过渡金属磷化物?过渡金属碳化物和过渡金属硼化物等, 作为电催化剂研究其二氧化碳还原催化性能. 另外, 就目前的研究来看, 将二氧化碳有效地还原到特定的产物仍存在巨大的挑战. 如何优化过渡金属(Mo, Fe, Co和Ni)基催化剂价层d轨道结构, 促进反应中间体吸附过程, 将是解决催化活性和选择性这一科学问题的关键.     

Gold nanowire networks: synthesis, characterization, and catalytic activity

Gold nanowire networks (AuNWNs) with average widths of 17.74 nm (AuNWN(1)) or 23.54 nm (AuNWN(2)) were synthesized by direct reduction of HAuCl(4) with sodium borohydride powder in deep eutectic solvents, such as ethaline or reline, at 40 °C. Their width and length were dependent on the type of solvent and the NaBH(4)/HAuCl(4) molar ratio (32 in ethaline and 5.2 in reline). High resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM) analysis of the gold nanowire networks showed clear lattice fringes of polycrystalline nanopowder of d = 2.36, 2.04, 1.44, and 1.23 ? corresponding to the (111), (200), (220), or (311) crystallographic planes of face centered cubic gold. The purified AuNWNs were used as catalysts for the chemical reduction of p-nitroaniline to diaminophenylene with sodium borohydride in aqueous solution. The reaction was monitored in real time by UV-vis spectroscopy. The results show that the reduction process is six times faster in the presence of gold nanowire networks stabilized by urea from the reline (AuNWN(2)) than in the presence of gold nanowire networks stabilized by ethylene glycol from ethaline (AuNWN(1)). This is due to a higher number of corners and edges on the gold nanowires synthesized in reline than on those synthesized in ethaline as proven by X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns recorded for both types of gold nanowire networks. Nevertheless, both types of nanomaterials determined short times of reaction and high conversion of p-nitroaniline to diaminophenylene. These gold nanomaterials represent a new addition to a new generation of catalysts: gold based catalysts.     

Polyarylsulfones,synthesis and properties,

A new class of high molecular weight polyarylsulfones is described. Polymer synthesis and structure–property relationships are discussed. The polymers are prepared by Friedel-Crafts type polycondensation of aromatic sulfonyl chlorides with aromatic hydrocarbons. A number of Lewis acids in small quantities are useful as catalysts for the polymerization. The polymerization reaction is carried out at elevated temperatures in the melt or in solution. Inert, nonbasic solvents which are compatible with the Lewis acid catalysts such as nitrobenzene and dimethyl sulfone are useful for conducting the polymerization. Many of the polyarylsulfones are amorphous, rigid thermoplastics with unusually high softening points, having glass transition temperatures in the range of 200–350°C. Outstanding resistance to air oxidation at high temperatures is derived from incorporation of the deactivating sulfone groups in the aromatic polymer backbone. Melt stability and solubility in selected solvents are emphasized as basis for processibility by conventional solution casting and molding techniques. The combination of properties, which in addition to thermal stability includes a high level of mechanical and electrical properties, chemical inertness, and hydrolysis resistance makes these new arylsulfone polymers useful over a wide temperature range and in severe and corrosive environments.