A Previously Unknown Path to Corpuscularism in the Seventeenth Century: Santorio’s Marginalia to the Commentaria in Primam Fen Primi Libri Canonis Avicennae (1625)

This paper presents some of Santorio's marginalia to his Commentaria in primam fen primi libri Canonis Avicennae (Venice, 1625), which I identified in the Sloane Collection of the British Library in 2016, as well as the evidence for their authorship. The name of the Venetian physician Santorio Santori (1561–1636) is linked with the introduction of quantification in medicine and with the invention of precision instruments that, displayed for the first time in this work, laid down the foundations for what we today understand as evidence-based medicine. But Santorio's monumentale opus also contains evidence of many quantified experiments and displays his ideas on mixtures, structure of matter and corpuscles, which are in many cases clarified and completed by the new marginalia. These ideas testify to an early interest in chemistry within the Medical School of Padua which predates both Galileo and Sennert and which has hitherto been unknown.     

Nehemiah Grew (1641–1712) and the Saline Chymistry of Plants

Abstract

In a series of lectures appended to his magisterial Anatomy of Plants (1682), Nehemiah Grew (1641–1712) explained the results of his own research into the saline chemistry of plants, following an established tradition in early modern chemistry. Members of the Royal Society such as Daniel Coxe were heavily involved in researching salt chemistry in the latter part of the seventeenth century, analysing the role of salts in spa waters, physiology, and as a fundamental element in iatrochemistry. Such researches of Royal Society members were often based upon the chemistry of Johann Van Helmont (1577–1634). As this paper will demonstrate, Grew's work drew from his microscopic research to elaborate and question some of Coxe's and hence Van Helmont's ideas about the principles of matter. Grew also used the results of his chemical research to draw conclusions about plant structure and colour, and applied his results to other areas in natural history such as meteorology, illustrating that chemistry was the basic analytical tool for seventeenth-century investigators of anatomy and natural history.     

Between Grocers and Physicians: Pharmacists,the new Chemistry,and Institutional Reforms in Bologna during the Napoleonic Period

Abstract

This article argues that the chemical and physiological experiments undertaken by the natural philosopher Stephen Hales (1677–1761) constituted a reformulation of providential matter theory. Hales was responding to a continuing debate about the position of chaos in the natural world between Newtonians like Samuel Clarke, who posited chaos as oppositional to immediate providential direction, and those such as John Ray and Bernard Nieuwentyt, who argued that nature was a chaos of operations, organised by divinely endowed but innate principles. Vegetable Staticks (1727) represents an attempted solution, arguing that a chaos of operations could support life only if it was concurrent with God's direction. Subsequently criticised by the Irish theologian Peter Browne for indulging frivolity, Hales responded in Haemastatics (1733) by auditing how spirituous liquor precipitated a bodily disintegration from the chaos of operations into a destructive chaos. Hales’ subsequent campaign against spirits should be read as an extension of his experimental philosophy as a moral tool.     

Rolf Huisgen,Eminent Chemist and Polymath (1920–2020): In His Own Words and In His Publication Metrics

As a compliment to several other publications that present and honor Rolf Huisgen's research achievements, the first part of this paper reveals the human side of this eminent chemist. From excerpts from many of his personal and professional writings, Huisgen's personality and philosophies of life are revealed. Also revealed is Huisgen functioning as a historian of chemistry. The second part of this paper examines the scientometrics of Huisgen's publication history. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Huisgen's career experienced a major transition in terms of publication metrics and the influence these papers had on the organic chemistry community. This was the result of his research into 1,3‐dipolar cycloadditions. Citations to his scientific contributions are well spread over many of his papers, demonstrating his constant work and the building up of a research topic, which continued after his official retirement in 1988. In fact, 17 % of his more than 600 publications appeared after 1988. The majority of Huisgen's papers were co‐authored with his many graduate and postdoctoral students. Consistent with the trend of that era, Huisgen was the sole author of most of his Review articles, and not just those of his many plenary lectures, and it is those Review articles that proved to be his most cited publications. This demonstrates the power and influence of Review articles—secondary sources, in the vocabulary of historians and sociologists of science. In those Review articles, Huisgen principally described the state of the art of 1,3‐dipolar cycloadditions—his golden offspring.     

Establishing the Canon: George Ripley and his Alchemical Sources

Abstract

George Ripley, Canon of Bridlington (ca. 1415 to ca. 1490) was one of England's most famous alchemists, whose alchemical opera attracted study and commentary throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and were printed and translated both in England and abroad. Yet Ripley's frequently baffling texts have proved resistant to scholarly interpretation. This paper attempts to unravel some of Ripley's alchemical theories and practice, firstly by identifying his major sources, and secondly by gauging his response to these texts. For instance, although Ripley's interest in the corpus of alchemical texts pseudonymously attributed to Ramon Lull is well documented, it transpires that his best known work, the Compound of Alchemy, or Twelve Gates, is actually based not on a Lullian work, but on a Latin treatise that Ripley attributed to the little-known alchemist, Guido de Montanor. Further clues to Ripley's alchemical thought can be obtained by considering his handling of a potential conflict between his two authorities, Lull and Guido. The resulting insights into Ripley's alchemy provide an instrument for assessing which of Ripley's pseudoepigraphic works can be truly called "canonical".     

Carl Hagemann ...ein Mensch von großer Güte,ein richtiger Chemiker...

Carl Hagemann (1867–1940), well known for his collection of German Expressionist paintings, was a successful chemist and manager at Farbenfabriken Bayer, Cassella and IG Farben company. 1893 he described a simple method of synthesizing methyl‐cyclohexenone‐carboxylic acid ethylesters, one is connected with the author's name to “Hagemann's ester”. It and many derivatives are used for synthesizing natural products and pharmaceuticals. Surprisingly, the Hagemann painting collection survived the spiteful actions of Hitler's regime and the dangerous Allied bombing raids and moreover today's chemists are still interested in Hagemann's ester.     

Platycodin D,a natural component of Platycodon grandiflorum,prevents both lysosome- and TMPRSS2-driven SARS-CoV-2 infection by hindering membrane fusion

An ongoing pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is now the greatest threat to global public health. Herbal medicines and their derived natural products have drawn much attention in the treatment of COVID-19, but the detailed mechanisms by which natural products inhibit SARS-CoV-2 have not been elucidated. Here, we show that platycodin D (PD), a triterpenoid saponin abundant in Platycodon grandiflorum (PG), a dietary and medicinal herb commonly used in East Asia, effectively blocks the two main SARS-CoV-2 infection routes via lysosome- and transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2)-driven entry. Mechanistically, PD prevents host entry of SARS-CoV-2 by redistributing membrane cholesterol to prevent membrane fusion, which can be reinstated by treatment with a PD-encapsulating agent. Furthermore, the inhibitory effects of PD are recapitulated by the pharmacological inhibition or gene silencing of NPC1, which is mutated in patients with Niemann–Pick type C (NPC) displaying disrupted membrane cholesterol distribution. Finally, readily available local foods or herbal medicines containing PG root show similar inhibitory effects against SARS-CoV-2 infection. Our study proposes that PD is a potent natural product for preventing or treating COVID-19 and that briefly disrupting the distribution of membrane cholesterol is a potential novel therapeutic strategy for SARS-CoV-2 infection.Subject terms: Viral infection, Lipid signalling     

Field-induced wooden-tip electrospray ionization mass spectrometry for high-throughput analysis of herbal medicines

This study demonstrates the first application of field-induced wooden-tip electrospray ionization (ESI) mass spectrometry (MS) for high-throughput analysis of herbal medicines. By application of an opposite and sample-contactless high voltage on the MS inlet rather than wooden tips, a high-throughput analysis device is easily set up, and a relatively fast analysis speed of 6 s per sample was successfully achieved. In addition, fast polarity switching between positive and negative ion detection mode is readily accomplished, which provides more complete chemical information for quality assessment and control of herbal medicines. By using the proposed method, various active ingredients present in different herbal medicines were rapidly detected, and the obtained mass spectra were served as the samples' fingerprints for tracing the origins, establishing the authenticity, and assessing the quality consistency and stability of herbal medicines. Our experimental results demonstrated that field-induced wooden-tip ESI-MS is a desirable method for high-throughput analysis of herbal medicines, with promising prospects for rapidly differentiating the origin, determining the authenticity, and assessing the overall quality of pharmaceuticals.     

A Single Electrochemical Probe Used for Analysis of Multiple Nucleic Acid Sequences

Electrochemical hybridization sensors have been explored extensively for analysis of specific nucleic acids. However, commercialization of the platform is hindered by the need for attachment of separate oligonucleotide probes complementary to a RNA or DNA target to an electrode's surface. Here we demonstrate that a single probe can be used to analyze several nucleic acid targets with high selectivity and low cost. The universal electrochemical four‐way junction (4J)‐forming (UE4J) sensor consists of a universal DNA stem‐loop (USL) probe attached to the electrode's surface and two adaptor strands (m and f) which hybridize to the USL probe and the analyte to form a 4J associate. The m adaptor strand was conjugated with a methylene blue redox marker for signal ON sensing and monitored using square wave voltammetry. We demonstrated that a single sensor can be used for detection of several different DNA/RNA sequences and can be regenerated in 30 seconds by a simple water rinse. The UE4J sensor enables a high selectivity by recognition of a single base substitution, even at room temperature. The UE4J sensor opens a venue for a re‐useable universal platform that can be adopted at low cost for the analysis of DNA or RNA targets.     

Interpretation and the Hieroglyphic Monad: John Dee's Reading of Pantheus's Voarchadumia

Abstract

John Dee's marginalia in his copy of Johannes Pantheus's Voarchadumia (now in the British Library) are an interesting source of information about the development of Dee's scientific ideas in the period between the Propaedeumata Aphoristica (1558) and the Monas Hieroglyphica (1564). In reading the book, Dee has systematically compared the text with Pantheus's earlier work, the Ars Metallicae, and noted any differences between the two largely identical works. Therefore, most of Dee's comments are not indications of his own interests, as has previously been assumed. Only the marginalia that are not concerned with comparing the two texts can be taken to express Dee's own views. These marginalia, probably written in 1559, provide evidence that Dee had already at this time a strong interest in cabbalistic methods as a means of gaining knowledge about natural substances. Cabbalistic speculation was to be central to Dee's thought in the Monas Hieroglyphica, and has previously been taken to indicate a dramatic change in Dee's scientific outlook, towards a spiritual quest. In his marginalia in the Voarchadumia, however, Dee appears to be using cabbalistic methods to gain information on wholly material, non-spiritual matters. The abundant use of the symbol of the hieroglyphic monad in the marginalia provides a further source of insight into the alchemical import of the symbol, five years before the publication of the Monas Hieroglyphica.     

Medicines,Monopolies and Mortars: the Chemical Laboratory and Pharmaceutical Trade at the Society of Apothecaries in the Eighteenth Century

Abstract

In 1672, a laboratory was founded by the Society of Apothecaries at its premises in Blackfriars, London, to manufacture chemical medicines. By exploring the society's motivations for constructing a laboratory and its development during the eighteenth century, this paper examines the roles that chemistry played within the activities of the institution. While the chemistry's primary utility was in drug manufacturing for the society's pharmaceutical trade, through its laboratory, the society used chemistry to develop its corporate and educational aims, thus helping to secure its institutional authority in London's medical marketplace.     

Emil Wohlwill's “Entdeckung des Isomorphismus”: A Nineteenth-Century “Material Biography” of Crystallography

Abstract

Eilhard Mitscherlich's experimental work on isomorphism in the crystallisation of many inorganic compounds was regarded by Emil Wohlwill (1835–1912) as a milestone in the history of the atomic–molecular theory. Despite his positivist account, Wohlwill's 1866 survey was primarily concerned with the material conditions that shaped Mitscherlich's theoretical assumptions on iso- and polymorphic crystallisation, narrowing the range of possible alternative models. Following an account of Wohlwill's exposition, and a discussion of his historiographic views, the paper shows how, from a historico-epistemological perspective, technical improvements in crystallography (an emerging branch of early-nineteenth-century mineralogy) were deeply entangled with a new interest in crystal formation as a cutting-edge research field of inorganic chemistry. This had fundamental implications for the development of atomic and molecular theory.     

Chemie und Liebe: ein Gleichnis

Goethe's nouel „Die Wahlverwandtschaften”︁ deals with a love-story, but it also deals with chemistry. Goethe draws parallels between both chemical processes and the attraction of the characters. These parallels will be explained in detail in the essay. The essay also deals with Goethes knowledge of the chemical theory of his time and explains his subtle literary strategies.     

Svedberg — Discoverer of the protein macromolecules

The(odor) Svedberg* (1884-1971), Uppsala University, was the first professor of physical chemistry in Sweden. He started his research in 1904 as a colloid chemist. He prepared inorganic dispersions by electrical discharge through organic liquids, measured particle size and size distribution of colloids by diffusion and sedimentation rates and invented the ultracentrifuge for convection-free sedimentation of colloidal particles. In 1924 Svedberg applied the ultracentrifuge for studies of haemoglobin in aqueous solution. Unexpectedly he found that the protein was not a gel of associated small molecules. It sedimented as macromolecules of uniform mass (68 000 dalton), i.e. is monodisperse. In subsequent work Svedberg found that other proteins like ovalbumin (from egg white) and haemocyanins from snails and other invertebrates also are monodisperse or contain a few uniform macromolecular components. After extensive studies of soluble protein molecules from a large number of animals and plants, Svedberg classified the species and could trace the relations for the species from the molecular mass of their protein macromolecules. Studies of soluble polysaccharides from bulbs also showed well defined macromolecules of masses that could be related to the various botanical species. Other native substances like cellulose, other wood polysaccharides and starch were found to be of high molecular mass but polydisperse. Svedberg's research in the 1920's and 1930's gave strong experimental support for Staudinger's macromolecular concept although Svedberg, at the time of his own important discoveries, was not influenced by Staudinger. Svedberg's discovery of the protein macromolecules and their uniform molecular mass initiated the macromolecular research in biochemistry.     

Our Future,Our Heritage. The Chemical Family Tree of Tetsuo Nozoe

Note from the Editor: When I was editing Tetsuo Nozoe's autobiography Seventy Years in Organic Chemistry in the late 1980s, I realized that the history of Japanese organic chemistry was not too well known in countries other than Japan. I urged Professor Nozoe to include the historical context of his life in his writings, and I was absolutely delighted that he did so. I also suggested that he publish a “Riko Majima Family Tree in Chemistry.” Majima was not only Nozoe's professor but, as detailed in Nozoe's autobiography and elsewhere in the literature, the father figure of Japanese organic chemistry. Nozoe was reluctant because to single‐out some chemical academics but not others in such a public manner could—would—prove embarrassing. But faithful to his profession, the obligations to history prevailed and Nozoe's autobiography contains the Majima Family Tree. We now skip ahead 25 years where we are immersed in the publication of the Nozoe Autograph Books (see: http://www.tcr.wiley‐vch.de/nozoe and this introductory essay: J. I. Seeman, Chem. Rec. 2012 , 12, 517–531). I find myself once again an editor studying in the life and legacies of Riko Majima and Tetsuo Nozoe. The “repeating experiences” of history have been felt once again! ² I asked Professors Ichiro Murata, Shô Itô, and Toyonobu Asao (who are Professor Nozoe's students and biographers) to follow Professor Nozoe's lead and provide his Family Tree in Chemistry. What follows is a reproduction of the Majima Family Tree as provided by Professor Nozoe along with the next generation Family Tree, that being the students of Tetsuo Nozoe's students who themselves became illustrious professors. —Jeffrey I. Seeman Guest Editor University of Richmond Richmond, Virginia 23173, USA E‐mail: jseeman@richmond.edu     

Sir Robert Robinson's “Anthocyanin Period”: 1922–1934 — A Case Study of an Early Twentieth-Century Natural Products Synthesis

Abstract

Sir Robert Robinson was one of the leading synthetic organic chemists of the twentieth century. His work in both theoretical chemistry and natural product synthesis was pioneering and led to his being awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1947. His specific accomplishments in terms of chemical structures synthesised and the introduction of new theoretical propositions represented major accomplishments in chemistry in the first half of the twentieth century. As he was one of the leading figures in the emerging field of natural product synthesis, it is a valuable exercise to examine his publication pattern as it pertained to a natural products synthesis project. This pattern manifested itself in the publication of a series of papers over several years, each focused on a specific family of natural products, with the publications first concentrating on simple precursor structures, but quickly moving on to full synthetic procedures for the targeted natural products. This was followed by an exhaustive study of the particular family of compounds. This paper reports one of Robinson's synthetic programmes, namely the synthesis of anthocyanins, which was carried out from 1922 to 1934 and resulted in the publication of forty-seven papers, including one on the first artificial synthesis of a flower pigment. This approach, as outlined in Robinson's publications, to tackling a complex synthetic challenge provides insight into the methodology of one of the leading natural product chemists of the first half of the twentieth century.     

A Preliminary Study of the Appropriation of Van Helmont's oeuvre in Britain in Chymistry,Medicine and Natural Philosophy

Abstract

Van Helmont's work was of major importance in seventeenth-century medicine, chymistry and natural philosophy. His work was a source of inspiration and mystery and an authoritas. His oeuvre was, together with that of many others, the culminating point of an ongoing process, starting in the Middle Ages, of turning medicine into a scientific discipline. In this essay, the appropriation, that is, the process of assimilation of an author's work by other scholars, of Van Helmont's oeuvre in England will be studied among chymists, physicians and natural philosophers (the distinctions between these three groups is primarily conceptual, but in practice hard to distinguish). Appropriation reminds us that the process of assimilating ideas of an author by contemporaries or later generations is not a passive activity, for scholars actively adapt and interpret them in new ways not initially envisaged by its original author.