The Interaction between a Compressible Synthetic Jet and a Laminar Hypersonic Boundary Layer

Numerical simulations have been performed of a synthetic jet interacting with a laminar hypersonic boundary layer. Two datum cases were also considered, no jet and steady jet. The simulations for the case of no jet are in agreement with available experimental data. Predicted flow features of the steady jet interaction are broadly consistent with previous studies. For the synthetic jet, the upstream and downstream separated regions are dramatically reduced in size, and the jet appears to lie closer to the surface, compared with the steady jet. It is also found that the synthetic jet induces a greater mixing rate than the steady jet. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

考虑边界层影响时溢流坝动水压强分布规律的研究

根据溢流坝反弧段水流运动的基本方程,考虑水流边界层的影响,在流线曲率同心圆假设条件下,得到了溢流坝反弧段水流压强计算的表达式。通过引入近壁薄流层要领和缓和过渡流线假设,在水工模型试验的基础上,得到了溢流坝反弧段水流流线曲率半径的计算公式,使反弧段离心力影响范围内的水流流线曲率光滑连续,从而得到反弧段水流压强分布规律的统一表达式,该表达式能够反映水流压强沿反弧法线方向及切线方向的变化规律。     

Effect of Strong External Turbulence on a Wall Jet Boundary Layer

The initial stage of the development of a wall jet under the influence of strong external turbulence has been studied in a novel shear-flow mixing-box experiment. A fully developed channel flow of depth h (40 mm) enters along the top wall of a cuboidal box of height 11 h in which a combination of oscillatory and turbulent velocity fluctuations are generated by a vertical oscillating grid at the midplane 5 h below the wall. When the ratio of the rms grid-generated velocity fluctuations, , to the local mean velocity inside the wall jet layer, u, is greater than about 0.1, significant changes are observed in the mean shear profile and in the eddy structure of the wall jet. The wall jet thickness increases by approximately 25% but the maximum velocity decreases by less than 10% compared to the case without the external turbulence. Fluctuations of the streamwise velocity component increase as expected in the outer part of the wall jet, but the most significant result is the increase by 70% of the fluctuations in the boundary layer close to the wall. CFD simulations using the k-ɛ RNG of the FLUENT CFD Code do not properly model the effect of the large scale external turbulence in this experiment. However, an artificial method, which introduces a series of small inlet/outlet jets to represent external turbulence, approximately simulates the overall effects of the oscillating grid on the wall jet, but does not simulate the amplification of the near wall turbulence. F. T. M. Nieuwstadt: Rest in peace (1946–2005).     

Interaction of a Traveling Pressure Perturbation with a Boundary Layer

The interaction between a traveling pressure perturbation and a laminar compressible boundary layer is investigated for a perturbation level higher than that needed to initiate steady-state flow separation. It is found that if the velocity of the pressure perturbation is fairly high the flow may remain unseparated and its direction of motion determines the nature of the perturbation propagation in the boundary layer. It is shown that even in the linear approximation the perturbations are mainly induced by the linear wall layer and not by the critical layer, which always remains nonlinear. It is also found that in the unsteady case shortwave perturbation oscillations are damped with time while the longwave ones grow and that the growth of the perturbations with time amplifies their damping along the streamwise coordinate while damping reduces it.     

Eddy-Viscosity and Stress-Transport Turbulence Models in Application to a Plane Synthetic Jet

A two-dimensional unsteady plane jet is computed using four turbulence models. The strain field generated by the ‘synthetic’ (reciprocating) jet under consideration contains regions of strong normal and shear straining, while vortex pairs formed by the issuing jet are highly rotational. Turbulence closures at the eddy-viscosity level (standard k???ε and two-timescale models) and two stress-transport closures (the ‘basic’ model and a two-component-limit scheme) are examined against experimental data. It is found that the extreme nature of the strain environment presents a severe challenge to the models tested; in particular, fundamental weaknesses in the constitutive equation of linear eddy viscosity models are highlighted. An additional term in the dissipation rate equation of the two-timescale model is found to hinder the formation of clearly defined starting vortex pairs which play a critical role in determining the near-field pattern of synthetic jet development. The stress-transport models are able to reproduce measured turbulence quantities with a greater degree of accuracy, and the two-component-limit formulation shows an improvement over the basic model.     

The Effect of Pressure Gradient on Boundary Layer Receptivity

This paper presents numerical results for the receptivity of three laminar boundary layers with zero (ZPG), adverse (APG) and favourable (FPG) pressure gradients. Each boundary layer is subjected to a series of simple freestream waveforms which can be considered as constituent parts of either an isotropic or a non-isotropic turbulent freestream. Each freestream waveform has a single frequency in each spatial direction and is divided into two mutually perpendicular components. The first component has a zero spanwise velocity and hence lies in the streamwise normal plane whereas the second component lies in a plane which is perpendicular both to this plane and the spatial frequency vector. High boundary layer receptivities are only obtained for a minority of these waveforms and so only the resulting flow structures for these waveforms are considered in detail. The dominant flow structures are identified as either Tollmien Schlichting (T-S) waves or streaky structures. The streaky structures can be induced by both freestream components, but the response to the second component, which results in streamwise vortices in the freestream, is considerably stronger and occurs over a much larger streamwise frequency range. The boundary layer is only receptive to a relatively narrow band of spanwise wavelengths ranging from approximately one to four times the local boundary layer thickness. The APG leads to receptivities which are more than double those for the FPG case. The ratio of the freestream fluctuation streamwise wavelength to the distance from the plate leading edge is identified as an important influential parameter for receptivity leading to streaks. Significant T-S activity is only observed for APG, but is also detected for ZPG.     

磷酸酯合成油在高压下的固化现象及分析

采用超高压毛细管黏度计考察了磷酸酯合成油和常压下黏度与之相近的合成油A及合成油B的压黏关系,并进行了磷酸酯合成油在高压下固化现象的研究,利用红外光谱和凝胶渗透色谱对固化前后的磷酸酯合成油进行了分析,并从机械力化学角度分析了产生固化的原因.结果表明:磷酸酯合成油的压黏关系上升速度远大于合成油A和B;固化后,磷酸酯的物理状态由液态变成"玻璃态",颜色由透明色变成乳白色;磷酸酯合成油发生了氧化反应,分子量增大;磷酸酯合成油经高压高剪切速率作用后,发生化学反应的原因是机械力作用导致较长分子链断裂,形成大分子自由基,具有很高活性的大分子自由基发生氧化等化学反应.     

Experience Gained Using Second-Moment Closure Modeling for Transitional Flows Due to Boundary Layer Separation

This paper presents detailed information on the experience gained during the attempts to model a set of transitional flows due to boundary layer separation. These flows are developed on a flat plate with a semi-circular leading edge and they have been coded by the ERCOFTAC Special Interest Group on Transition, as T3L flows. Different freestream velocities and turbulence intensities configure these transitional flows and, by consequence, govern the transition mechanism, resulting in larger or smaller transitional regions. The modeling of the T3L flows has been performed by adopting a low-Reynolds number second-moment closure turbulence model. The results showed satisfactory agreement with the experimental measurements, although some difficulties regarding successful convergence have been faced. The final conclusion is that turbulence modeling can present quite accurate results for transitional flows without any additional use of ad-hoc modifications or additional equations based on various transition models and intermittency transport modeling.     

Transition to Turbulence in the Boundary Layer on a Plate in the Presence of a Negative Free-Stream Pressure Gradient

Transition to turbulence in the boundary layer on a flat plate is investigated numerically for an incompressible fluid flow with a given negative free-stream pressure gradient. The transition is investigated using the three-parameter turbulence model developed by the authors. The calculation results are compared with the available experimental data.     

离心泵叶片边界层分离对水动力特性的影响

给出了离心泵叶片近壁表面流体粘性流动的分析方法,通过对叶片压力面边界层参数的计算和边界层分离的判断,确定分离型和流线型叶片型线,又通过对测试泵的性能对比试验,验证了叶片型线对水动力特性的影响,明确了这种影响主要体现在离心泵的水力效率、动力性能方面,并指出叶片形状的变化是导致其表面流体边界层分离点位置移动的主要原因,它决定了边界层是否分离,而过大的分离将使测试泵的性能下降,振动剧烈、噪声增大,并强调应重视边界层分析在叶片水力设计中的作用,同时给出了叶片型线水力设计的评价依据。所得结论对低比转速离心泵水动力特性的改善有参考价值。     

Centralised Versus Decentralised Active Control of Boundary Layer Instabilities

We use linear control theory to construct an output feedback controller for the attenuation of small-amplitude three-dimensional Tollmien-Schlichting (TS) wavepackets in a flat-plate boundary layer. A three-dimensional viscous, incompressible flow developing on a zero-pressure gradient boundary layer in a low Reynolds number environment is analyzed using direct numerical simulations. In this configuration, we distribute evenly in the spanwise direction up to 72 localised objects near the wall (18 disturbances sources, 18 actuators, 18 estimation sensors and 18 objective sensors). In a fully three-dimensional configuration, the interconnection between inputs and outputs becomes quickly unfeasible when the number of actuators and sensors increases in the spanwise direction. The objective of this work is to understand how an efficient controller may be designed by connecting only a subset of the actuators to sensors, thereby reducing the complexity of the controller, without comprising the efficiency. If n and m are the number of sensor-actuator pairs for the whole system and for a single control unit, respectively, then in a decentralised strategy, the number of interconnections deceases mn compared to a centralized strategy, which has n ² interconnections. We find that using a semi-decentralized approach – where small control units consisting of 3 estimation sensors connected to 3 actuators are replicated 6 times along the spanwise direction – results only in a 11 % reduction of control performance. We explain how “wide” in the spanwise direction a control unit should be for a satisfactory control performance. Moreover, the control unit should be designed to account for the perturbations that are coming from the lateral sides (crosstalk) of the estimation sensors. We have also found that the influence of crosstalk is not as essential as the spreading effect.     

Permissible Height of the Surface Roughness in a Turbulent Boundary Layer with a Streamwise Pressure Gradient

The results of an experimental investigation of the effect of the streamwise pressure gradient in a turbulent boundary layer on the permissible height of the surface roughness of bodies in an incompressible fluid flow are presented. The permissible roughness Reynolds number for which the characteristics of the turbulent boundary layer remain the same as in the case of flow past a smooth surface is determined.     

Energy Addition to a Gas in a Turbulent Supersonic Boundary Layer

The effect of the thermal action on a turbulent supersonic boundary–layer flow is studied numerically. It is shown that the friction force on an isothermal surface decreases significantly. The effectiveness of using a thermal source for decreasing friction is evaluated.     

Flat-Plate Boundary Layer Receptivity to a Steady Free-Stream Vortex Disturbance

A single trailing vortex developed behind a micro-wing immersed in a free stream was used to study the vortex receptivity of the boundary layer on a flat plate. As a result of the interaction, in the boundary layer there develop longitudinal-velocity disturbances which grow almost linearly in the longitudinal coordinate. The parameters of the excited steady disturbances agree with the data of previous experiments performed under natural conditions and dealing with an indirect scenario of laminar-turbulent transition at high free-stream turbulence. It is shown that the leading edge of the plate does not play a decisive role in the mechanism of growth of disturbances of this kind and the receptivity is non-local in nature.     

Swept-Wing Boundary Layer Receptivity to a Steady Free-Stream Vortex Disturbance

A single trailing vortex developed behind a micro-wing immersed in a free stream was used to study the vortex receptivity of a swept-wing boundary layer. As a result of the interaction, longitudinal-velocity disturbances develop in the boundary layer. On the swept wing, disturbance transformation occurs near the leading edge and is accompanied by the formation of a wave packet consisting of waves typical of cross-flow instability. Disturbances with other characteristics are also detected. These disturbances may be attributable to distributed boundary-layer receptivity to the free-stream vortex disturbance considered.     

自由湍射流边界层标度律的实验测量

用IFA300热线风速仪以低于最小低湍流时间尺度的高分辨率，精细测量了圆自由射流中同一流向断面内不同径向位置的流向速度分量，研究了不同径向位置的非均匀、非各向同性对充分发展湍流速度结构函数自相似标度律及其层次结构模型的影响。     

Receptivity of Hypersonic Boundary Layer to Wall Disturbances

Theoretical analysis of hypersonic boundary-layer receptivity to wall disturbances is conducted using a combination of asymptotic and numerical methods. Excitation of the second mode by distributed and local forcing on a flat-plate surface is studied under adiabatic and cooled wall conditions. Analysis addresses receptivity to wall vibrations, periodic suction/blowing, and temperature disturbances. A strong excitation occurs in local regions where forcing is in resonance with normal waves. It is shown that the receptivity function tends to infinity as the resonance point tends to the branch point of the discrete spectrum that is typical for boundary layers on cool surfaces. Asymptotic analysis resolves this singularity and provides the receptivity coefficient in the branch-point vicinity. Numerical results indicate extremely high receptivity to vibrations and suction/blowing in the vicinity of the branch point located near the lower neutral branch of the Mack second mode. Received 5 September 2000 and accepted 7 September 2001     

Transient Characterization of the Reattachment of a Massively Separated Turbulent Boundary Layer Under Flow Control

The transient dynamics of a high Reynolds number separated flow over a two-dimensional ramp submitted to pulsed fluidic control is investigated. A spanwise array of 22 round jets, located upstream of the flap leading edge, is used as actuator to generate co-rotating vortical structures. Simultaneous measurements of wall friction using hot-film anemometry and phase-averaged velocity using 2D2C PIV are conducted. The PIV plane encompasses the incoming boundary layer upstream the flap leading edge, the separation bubble and the natural reattachment region. The dynamics of the separated flow is studied for successive sequences of pulsed actuation. Pockets of turbulence are periodically generated by the separation process and pushed downstream. After the transition period, the controlled flow shows large amplitude oscillations around a steady mean, particularly for the separation area. The transient dynamics of the flow at the actuation activation is also studied. The separated flow is strongly modified by the actuation from the first pulse. Characteristic times of the transient dynamics can be determined by fitting a first-order model with delay on the data. For the reattachment, the dimensionless characteristic rising times defined as \(\tau _{r}^{+} = \tau _{r} ~ U_{0} ~/~ L_{sep}\) of 11.7 for the friction gain, 4.8 for the separation length and 4.1 for the first mode of a Conditional Proper Orthogonal Decomposition analysis of the phase-averaged velocity fields were found. These values are in good agreement with previous studies and are of particular interest for modeling the transients and for further closed-loop control applications.     

Prehistory of Instability in a Hypersonic Boundary Layer

The initial phase of hypersonic boundary-layer transition comprising excitation of boundary-layer modes and their downstream evolution from receptivity regions to the unstable region (instability prehistory problem) is considered. The disturbance spectrum reveals the following features: (1) the first and second modes are synchronized with acoustic waves near the leading edge; (2) further downstream, the first mode is synchronized with entropy and vorticity waves; (3) near the lower neutral branch of the Mack second mode, the first mode is synchronized with the second mode. Disturbance behavior in Regions (2) and (3) is studied using the multiple-mode method accounting for interaction between modes due to mean-flow nonparallel effects. Analysis of the disturbance behavior in Region 3) provides the intermodal exchange rule coupling input and output amplitudes of the first and second modes. It is shown that Region (3) includes branch points at which disturbance group velocity and amplitude are singular. These singularities can cause difficulties in stability analyses. In Region (2), vorticity/entropy waves are partially swallowed by the boundary layer. They may effectively generate the Mack second mode near its lower neutral branch. Received 17 July 2000 and accepted 23 March 2001