Conjugated Microporous Polymers for Heterogeneous Catalysis

Conjugated microporous polymers (CMPs) are a class of crosslinked polymers that combine permanent micropores with π‐conjugated skeletons and possess three‐dimensional (3D) networks. Compared with conventional materials such as metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) and covalent organic frameworks (COFs), CMPs usually have superior chemical and thermal stability. CMPs have made significant progress in heterogeneous catalysis in the past seven years. With a bottom‐up strategy, catalytic moieties can be directly introduced into in the framework to produce heterogeneous CMP catalysts. Higher activity, stability, and selectivity can be obtained with heterogeneous CMP catalysts in comparison with their homogeneous analogs. In addition, CMP catalysts can be easily isolated and recycled. In this review, we focus on CMPs as an intriguing platform for developing various highly efficient and recyclable heterogeneous catalysts in organic reactions. The design, synthesis, and structure of these CMP catalysts are also discussed in this focus review.     

Fabrication of carboxymethylated cellulose fibers supporting Ag NPs@MOF‐199s nanocatalysts for catalytic reduction of 4‐nitrophenol

In this work, we prepared high‐performance and recyclable nanocatalysts that consist of small and well‐dispersed silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) immobilized onto Cu‐ based metal–organic framework (MOF‐199 s) supported by carboxymethylated cellulose fibers (CCFs). The as‐prepared green nanohybrid catalysts, namely Ag NPs@ MOF‐199 s/CCFs, were characterized using SEM, TEM, XRD and FT‐IR techniques. The catalytic performances showed that Ag NPs@ MOF‐199 s/CCFs catalysts exhibited a very high catalytic efficiency towards the reduction of 4‐nitrophenol to 4‐aminophenol. The enhanced catalytic performances are attributed to the improved dispersity, small particles of Ag NPs stabilized by the MOF‐199 s, and the porous catalyst structures. The introduction of cellulose fiber further facilitates the reuse and sustainability of the nanohybrid catalysts, showing a stable and high reusability (more than 91% of catalytic activity) even after five runs.     

Simple Preparation and Application of TEMPO‐Coated Fe3O4 Superparamagnetic Nanoparticles for Selective Oxidation of Alcohols

The organic oxidant TEMPO (2,2,4,4‐tetramethylpiperdine‐1‐oxyl) was immobilized on iron oxide (Fe₃O₄) superparamagnetic nanoparticles by employing strong metal‐oxide chelating phosphonates and azide/alkyne “click” chemistry. This simple preparation yields recyclable TEMPO‐coated nanoparticles with good TEMPO loadings. They have excellent magnetic response and efficiently catalyze the oxidation of a wide range of primary and secondary alcohols to aldehydes, ketones, and lactones under either aerobic acidic Mn^II/Cu^II oxidizing Minisci conditions, or basic NaOCl Anelli conditions. The nanoparticles could be recycled more than 20 times under the Minisci conditions and up to eight times under the Anelli conditions with good to excellent substrate conversions and product selectivities. Immobilization of the catalyst through a phosphonate linkage allows the particles to withstand acidic oxidizing environments with minimal catalyst leaching. Clicking TEMPO to the phosphonate prior to phosphonate immobilization, rather than after, ensures the clicked catalyst is the only species on the particle surface. This facilitates quantification of the catalyst loading. The stability of the phosphonate linker and simplicity of this catalyst immobilization method make this an attractive approach for tethering catalysts to oxide supports, creating magnetically separable catalysts that can be used under neutral or acidic conditions.     

Recent Developments on Catalytic Applications of Nano-Crystalline Magnesium Oxide

Nanocrystalline metal oxides, MgO, CuO, ZnO, TiO₂ as catalysts or catalyst supports have been received much attention in the recent years, especially nanocrystalline magnesium oxide (NAP-MgO) has been used as a recyclable catalyst for Wittig, Wadsworth–Emmons, aza-Michael, Baylis–Hillman, Strecker, Aldol, Claisen-Schmidt condensation and other useful organic reactions. In general, it is reported that nanocrystalline magnesium oxide shows better activity in many organic reactions. These high reactivities are due to high surface areas combined with unusually reactive morphologies. The nanomaterials were also explored as supports to make supported metal catalysts for the organic reactions. The higher activity of these catalysts was studied partly to understand the mechanism of the reaction, the putative reaction pathways were preliminarily presented with the help of spectroscopic support, XPS, silicon, and phosphorus NMR spectroscopy. The catalysts are recovered and reused for several cycles. These catalytic systems are expected to contribute to the development of benign chemical processes.     

气相金属催化反应综述

金属催化剂在工业、环境、能源以及生物等过程具有重要的应用.设计具有特定活性、环境友好型以及室温下具有反应活性的催化剂,需要在分子水平对金属催化剂的基元步骤,活性位点的结构以及催化反应微观机理有充分的认识.然而,由于宏观催化剂表面结构异常复杂,催化反应常受到溶剂、压力、金属颗粒团聚、催化剂表面缺陷等因素的干扰,利用现有实验仪器,从微观角度探索金属催化反应机理仍具有较大挑战,因此,对金属催化剂活性位的结构以及反应微观机理的认识还不十分清楚.质谱方法结合现代量子化学理论计算,提供了在气相条件下实验探索化学反应微观机理的有力工具,团簇反应可在隔离外界条件、可控以及可重复条件下进行,可以排除一些难以控制因素的干扰,可在化学键和分子结构水平认识金属活性位的结构以及催化反应的微观机理.气相金属团簇离子可用多种实验方法制备,与反应物分子反应后可利用多种质谱仪器探测,根据实验上所得的具有反应活性的团簇,结合现代量子化学理论模拟,得到金属催化反应的基元步骤以及微观反应机理信息,所得反应机理信息为宏观催化剂的设计提供重要理论研究基础.本综述总结了团簇实验上已经探测到的金属单原子离子、金属团簇、金属氧化物团簇和金属化合物催化的气相反应.反应物分子囊括了大量的无机和有机分子,包括CO,H2,CH4,C2H2,C2H4,C6H6,CH3OH,HCOOH,CH3COOH等.本综述主要介绍了以下三类催化反应:(1)CO催化氧化;(2)CH4催化转化;(3)催化脱羧反应,并重点关注贵金属单原子掺杂团簇独特的催化反应性.单原子催化剂可最大限度地利用有限的贵金属.在化学反应方面,单原子催化剂具有特异的反应活性,选择性以及稳定性.本综述对气相团簇反应中报道的两个重要的贵金属单原子掺杂团簇的催化反应进行了详细介绍:(1)金原子掺杂的AuAl3O3-5+团簇为首次报道的可以利用分子氧催化氧化CO的团簇单原子催化剂,我们对Au原子起催化作用的本质原因进行了介绍:(2)铂原子掺杂的PtAl3O5-7-团簇能利用分子氧催化氧化CO,该研究提出了"电负性阶梯"效应来解释Pt原子催化的微观机理,且此效应有望对大部分贵金属适用.此外,本综述对CO催化氧化反应和CH4催化转化反应的研究现状以及尚未解决的问题进行了剖析.相比CO的催化氧化反应,科学家对CH4催化转化反应机理的认识还不够深入,还需要进一步实验研究,而团簇单原子催化剂有望在此领域有所突破.     

Designing Self‐Supported Metal‐Organic Framework Derived Catalysts for Electrochemical Water Splitting

To achieve efficient water splitting, it is essential to develop catalysts with high electrochemical performance, enhanced durability and tunable properties. Most of the transition metal‐based catalysts employed for the water splitting have been fabricated on the solid‐electrode support by using binder, which decreases the activity and durability of the catalyst system. In this respect, self‐supported metal organic framework (MOF) derived catalysts have been introduced with enhanced catalytic activity and mechanical stability for the electrochemical water splitting. The self‐supported MOF derived catalysts exhibit improved electronic conductivity, high electrochemical surface area, enhanced mechanical stability and strong catalyst‐support interaction. Moreover, these catalysts possess highly porous and hollow structure with designed morphology and multi‐metallic composition. Recently, a tremendous effort has been provided to explore this newly growing field and new dimensions and directions have been achieved. Looking at this point, we have described here the basic principles of catalyst design from self‐supported MOF, structural and interface engineering by controlling the electronic structure of the catalysts to improve the water splitting activity. In addition, the challenges and difficulties associated with this field have been pointed out and addressed for the future progress in this field.     

Diverse Approaches for Enantioselective C−H Functionalization Reactions Using Group 9 CpxMIII Catalysts

Transition-metal-catalyzed C−H functionalization reactions with Cp*M^III catalysts (M=Co, Rh, Ir) have found a wide variety of applications in organic synthesis. Albeit the intrinsic difficulties in achieving catalytic stereocontrol using these catalysts due to their lack of additional coordination sites for external chiral ligands and the conformational flexibility of the Cp ligand, catalytic enantioselective C−H functionalization reactions using the Group 9 metal triad with Cp-type ligands have been intensively studied since 2012. In this minireview, the progress in these reactions according to the type of the chiral catalyst used are summarized and discussed. The development of chiral Cp^x ligands the metal complexes thereof, artificial metalloenzymes, chiral carboxylate-assisted enantioselective C−H activations, enantioselective alkylations assisted by chiral carboxylic acids or chiral sulfonates, and chiral transient directing groups are discussed.     

Theoretical Insight into the Effect of Fluorine-Functionalized Metal-Organic Framework Supported Palladium Single-Site Catalyst in the Ethylene Dimerization Reaction

Ethylene dimerization reaction is one of the most common mechanisms for the production of 1-butene. Recently, metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) have received extensive attention in this area since they combine all the advantages of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts in a single compound. Here a computational mechanistic study of MOF-supported palladium single-site catalyst for ethylene dimerization reaction is reported. Catalytic systems with both biphenyl-type backbone as organic ligand and its fluorine-functionalization have been investigated to reveal the origin of ligand effects on the catalytic activity and selectivity. The calculations revealed that the nonfluorinated palladium MOF catalyst undergoes dimerization over isomerization reaction. Then the influence of the fluorine-functionalized organic ligand was compared in the dimerization catalytic cycle, which was strongly favored in terms of activity and selectivity. Catalyst-substrate interactions were analyzed by energy decomposition analysis revealing the critical role of ligand backbone functionalization on the activity. This theoretical analysis identified three chemically meaningful dominant effects on these catalysts; steric, electrostatic and charge transfer effects. The steric effects promote nonfluorinated MOF catalyst, whereas the electrostatic effects are the dominant factor that promotes its fluorinated counterpart. This theoretical study provides feedback with future experimental studies about the role of fluorine ligand functionalization in palladium MOF catalysts for ethylene dimerization reaction.     

Single-atom catalysis for organic reactions

Metal-based catalysis, including homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis, plays a significant role in the modern chemical industry. Heterogeneous catalysis is widely used due to the high efficiency, easy catalyst separation and recycling. However, the metal-utilization efficiency for conventional heterogeneous catalysts needs further improvement compared to homogeneous catalyst. To tackle this, the pursing of heterogenizing homogeneous catalysts has always been attractive but challenging. As a recently emerging class of catalytic material, single-atom catalysts (SACs) are expected to bridge homogeneous and heterogeneous catalytic process in organic reactions and have arguably become the most active new frontier in catalysis field. In this review, a brief introduction and development history of single-atom catalysis and SACs involved organic reactions are documented. In addition, recent advances in SACs and their practical applications in organic reactions such as oxidation, reduction, addition, coupling reaction, and other organic reactions are thoroughly reviewed. To understand structure-property relationships of single-atom catalysis in organic reactions, active sites or coordination structure, metal atom-utilization efficiency (e.g., turnover frequency, TOF calculated based on active metal) and catalytic performance (e.g., conversion and selectivity) of SACs are comprehensively summarized. Furthermore, the application limitations, development trends, future challenges and perspective of SAC for organic reaction are discussed.     

离子液体中手性催化剂回收研究

近年来,贵重的手性催化剂的回收与再利用越来越引起化学工作者的关注,而离子液体在催化剂回收方面有其独特的优势.本文综述了离子液体在手性催化反应中的应用,在回收催化剂的同时,也能一定程度上提高催化剂的催化效率:着重介绍了新型含咪唑盐手性催化剂及其在不对称催化中的应用,由于它在离子液体和有机溶剂的显著差异可以很容易地得到回收,并且能一定程度地稳定催化剂,提高催化效率,这对我们设计合成新型可回收的催化剂具有重要的借鉴意义.     

Constructing Mononuclear Palladium Catalysts by Precoordination/Solvothermal Polymerization: Recyclable Catalyst for Regioselective Oxidative Heck Reactions

Heterogeneous, metal, single‐site catalysts often exhibit higher catalytic performance than other catalysts because of their maximized atom efficiency of 100 %. Reported herein is a precoordination/solvothermal polymerization strategy to fabricate a stable mononuclear Pd‐metalized porous organic polymer catalyst (Pd@POP). Pd@POP was easy to use in regioselective organic reactions because the internal structure of this Pd@POP can be easily modified. The catalyst was used to solve the intractable regioselectivity problems of Heck reactions. Pd@POP‐9 can efficiently activate the ends of olefins, thereby leading to high selectivity for substitution at the external position. To understand the reason underlying the high selectivity and activity of the catalyst, the systemic characterization of Pd@POP‐9 and density‐functional theory calculations were conducted. This Heck reaction is the first to be catalyzed by a recyclable mononuclear metal catalyst with unprecedented catalytic activity and regioselectivity.     

Recent advances in the application of nanocatalysts in C-N coupling reactions

The development of various methodologies for the formation of carbon-nitrogen bonds is one of the valuable tasks in the field of organic synthesis because the final products are extensively utilized in pharmaceuticals, biologically active compounds, and natural products. The utilization of nanosized metal catalysts with high surface energy, large surface-to-volume ratio, excellent thermal stability, and reactive morphology in C-N cross-coupling reactions has received considerable attention, in recent years. The excellent catalytic performance, the high yield of products, carrying out the reactions under relatively mild and ligand-free conditions, and less toxicity to the environment, recoverability, and reusability of catalysts for several times without a remarkable degradation in activity are advantages of these nanocatalysts. This review intends to summarize the latest progress in the fabrication of nanocatalysts and their applications in the construction of carbon-nitrogen bonds via cross-coupling reactions. Abundant nanocatalysts based on metal and metal oxide nanoparticles/complexes including copper, palladium, nickel, cobalt, silver, gold, zirconium, and zinc have successfully been applied in these reactions. Various aspects of the reactions, different strategies of fabrication of nanocatalysts, and their recyclability have been surveyed. Literature has been investigated from 2015 to 2021.     

Well-Defined,Versatile and Recyclable Half-Sandwich Nickelacarborane Catalyst for Selective Carbene-Transfer Reactions

Catalytic carbene-transfer reactions constitute a class of highly useful transformations in organic synthesis. Although catalysts based on a range of transition-metals have been reported, the readily accessible nickel(II)-based complexes have been rarely used. Herein, an air-stable nickel(II)-carborane complex is reported as a well-defined, versatile and recyclable catalyst for selective carbene transfer reactions with low catalyst loading under mild conditions. This catalyst is effective for several types of reactions including diastereoselective cyclopropanation, epoxidation, selective X−H insertions (X = C, N, O, S, Si), particularly for the unprotected substrates. This represents a rare example of carborane ligands in base metal catalysis.     

Carbon-Based Material-Supported Palladium Nanocatalysts in Coupling Reactions: Discussion on their Stability and Heterogeneity

Scientific interest in carbon-based materials (CBMs) has grown dramatically over the past few decades. Due to a variety of atomic orbital hybrid forms (sp, sp² and sp³ hybridization), carbon can form a variety of materials with diverse structures and characteristics. CBMs used as efficient catalyst supports show extensive promise in organic reactions, which is attributed to their structural similarity with organics, large specific surface area, chemical stability, and photocatalytic properties. This review presents the synthesis of CBM-supported palladium nanocatalysts based on impregnation, template methods, etc. The CBMs include activated carbon (AC), graphene, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and their functionalized products, as supports for improving the activity and recyclability of simple Pd nanocatalysts. After surveying the literature where these catalysts have been utilized for carbon–carbon coupling reactions, there is a particular emphasis on Suzuki, Heck, and Sonogashira reactions. The catalytic mechanism of these Pd nanocatalysts (surface heterogeneous catalysis or homogeneous catalysis caused by Pd leaching) is discussed in detail, especially the effect of Pd leaching on the stability of the catalyst.     

Highly Active Supported Pt Nanocatalysts Synthesized by Alcohol Reduction towards Hydrogenation of Cinnamaldehyde: Synergy of Metal Valence and Hydroxyl Groups

The hydrogenation of α,β‐unsaturated aldehydes to allylic alcohols or saturated aldehydes provides a typical example to study the catalytic effect on structure‐sensitive reactions. In this work, supported platinum nanocatalysts over hydrotalcite were synthesized by an alcohol reduction method. The Pt catalyst prepared by the reduction with a polyol (ethylene glycol) outperforms those prepared with ethanol and methanol in the hydrogenation of cinnamaldehyde. The selectivity towards the C=O bond is the highest over the former, although its mean size of Pt particles is the smallest. The hydroxyl groups on hydrotalcite could act as an internally accessible promoter to enhance the selectivity towards the C=O bond. The optimal Pt catalyst showed a high activity with an initial turnover frequency (TOF) of 2.314 s^?1. This work unveils the synergic effect of metal valence and in situ promoter on the chemoselective hydrogenation, which could open up a new direction in designing hydrogenation catalysts.     

Trost氮杂半冠醚手性配体在不对称催化反应中的应用

双功能手性金属络合物催化的不对称反应是目前有机化学研究的热点之一。本文综述了氮杂半冠醚手性配体与金属有机试剂络合的双金属催化剂,在催化不对称aldol反应、不对称Henry反应、不对称Michael反应、不对称Mannich反应、不对称Friedel-Crafts烷基化反应、不对称炔基化反应、不对称硅氰化反应、共聚反应、去对称化反应以及不对称Nozaki-Hiyama烯丙基化反应体系中的应用进展,重点介绍了不同催化体系对催化剂和反应底物之间立体效应和电子效应的影响,总结了控制反应立体选择性的规律以及有关催化反应的机理。     

用于生物质水相加氢多相负载型金属催化剂的稳定策略

生物质是天然的可再生能源和资源,具有来源广泛、储量丰富、价格低廉的优点以及可转化为高附加值化学品的多功能性,因此作为传统化石能源替代材料受到广泛关注和研究.将生物质通过催化转化为平台化合物再进一步利用是生物质利用的重要途径,其中催化加氢是常用的反应之一.由于绝大多数生物质平台化合物分子中都含氧元素,其加氢过程中会不可避免的产生水,同时水作为绿色环保,价廉易得的溶剂,可以溶解绝大多数生物质平台化合物,因此选择水做溶剂具有重要意义.负载型纳米金属催化剂(如Au、Rh、Pt、Pd、Ru、Cu和Co等)在生物质水相加氢反应中具有广泛的应用,但其在水相反应条件下(通常为高温、高压、强酸性等苛刻条件)容易在反应过程中发生纳米金属粒子的团聚、流失以及载体的坍塌、结构转变等引起失活.因此,发展可以在水相体系中稳定的金属多相催化剂对生物质资源化利用非常必要.本文首先综述了溶剂水对反应的影响以及负载型金属催化剂在水相体系中的失活类型与机理,内容包括:(1)溶剂水对催化剂及催化加氢反应的积极作用,包含提高转化率和影响产物选择性;(2)溶剂水引起催化剂失活的原因,如引起金属纳米粒子发生团聚、氧化、流失以及载体发生溶解、坍塌、结构转变等.从负载型金属催化剂的失活机理入手,分别从提高金属纳米粒子的稳定性和载体的稳定性两个方向综述了提高负载型金属催化剂稳定性的普适性策略,内容包括:(1)通过界面限域策略增强金属-载体相互作用的方式提高金属纳米粒子在载体上的稳定性,包括有机基团配位、杂原子配位、镶嵌法等;(2)通过空间限域策略将金属纳米颗粒封装的方式提高金属纳米粒子的稳定性,包括利用一维的空心管状材料、二维的超薄材料以及三位的空心球(笼)材料等;(3)通过提高载体(主要为氧化物载体)的稳定性以提高催化剂整体稳定性,包括对载体进行修饰、包覆、杂化等方式.本工作所综述的提高生物质水相加氢金属催化剂稳定性的策略为高稳定性催化剂的设计指出了方向.     

Pd nanoparticles supported on amphiphilic porous organic polymer as an efficient catalyst for aqueous hydrodechlorination and Suzuki-Miyaura coupling reactions

Developing efficient and recyclable heterogeneous catalysts for organic reactions in water is important for the sustainable development of chemical industry. In this work, Pd nanoparticles supported on DABCO-functionalized porous organic polymer was successfully prepared through an easy copolymerization and successive immobilization method. Characterization results indicated that the prepared catalyst featured big surface area, hierarchical porous structure, and excellent surface amphiphilicity. We demonstrated the use of this amphiphilic catalyst in two case reactions, i.e. the aqueous hydrodechlorination and Suzuki-Miyaura coupling reactions. Under mild reaction conditions, the catalyst showed high catalytic activities for the two reactions. In addition, the catalyst could be easily recovered and reused for several times. Also, no obvious Pd leaching and aggregation of Pd nanoparticles occurred up during the consecutive reactions.     

高分子负载贵金属类催化剂及其在有机反应中的最新应用

高分子负载金属催化剂与传统的均相催化剂相比,具有较高的催化活性、立体选择性、较好的稳定性和重复使用性能,并且后处理简单,在反应完成后可方便地借助固-液分离方法将高分子催化剂与反应体系中其他组分分离、再生和重复使用,可降低成本和减少环境污染。本文综述了近五年来高分子负载贵金属类催化剂在有机反应中的最新应用,根据金属不同将其分为钌、钯、银、金四大类,并分类介绍了其在不同固相反应中的应用。本文介绍的负载贵金属类催化剂中的负载物均为不溶性聚合物,但不包括二氧化硅、可溶性聚合物和树枝状大分子等。     

ZIF‐8‐Nanocrystalline Zirconosilicate Integrated Porous Material for the Activation and Utilization of CO2 in Insertion Reactions

The conversion of CO₂ to useful chemicals, especially to atom economical products, is the best approach to utilize an excess of CO₂ present in the atmosphere. In this study, a metal‐organic framework (ZIF‐8) is integrated with nanocrystalline zirconosilicate zeolite to develop an integrated porous catalyst for CO₂ insertion reactions. The catalyst exhibits excellent activity for the CO₂ insertion reaction of epoxide to produce cyclic carbonate in neat condition without the addition of any co‐catalyst. The catalyst is stable and recyclable during the cyclic carbonate synthesis. Further, the catalyst also exhibits very good activity in another CO₂ insertion reaction to produce quinazoline‐2,4(1H, 3H)‐dione.