The sputtering process and sputtered ion emission

In this review an attempt is made to delineate those physical characteristics of the sputtering event which are of importance for the discussion of sputtered ion emission. Emphasis is placed on the grossly disordered nature of the sputtering site as the sputtered atoms depart. The electronic nature of a disordered site is discussed and attention is drawn to the inapplicability of bulk density of states concepts to this region. In particular, it is argued that the concept of a band gap in the surface state density is inappropriate. Sputtered ion emission models are reviewed with respect to their consistency with the physics of the sputtering event and with the general features of sputtered ion emission. It is argued that a self-consistent model can be developed in the framework of which sputtered ion emission from oxidized surfaces, from clean alloy surfaces, and from the pure elements can be understood.     

Determination of the negative ion yield of copper sputtered by cesium ions

Abstract

This paper describes the determination of secondary ion yields for negative ions obtained by bombardment of copper by cesium ions. Stable and reproducible surface conditions are reached by high rate sodium deposition simultaneously with sputtering. An optimum thickness of sodium corresponding to about one monolayer is found. Total negative ion yields K ^? _Σ are measured by a double modulation technique. Individual negative ion yields K ^? _i are then found by mass spectrometrically determining the various negative ion intensities, the sum of which relates linearly to K ^? _Σ. This method is based on the assumption of an equal angular and energy distribution of all sputtered negative ions. Data are given for K^? _Σ and K ^? _Cu and K^? _O. The dependence of K ^? _i on primary ion energy (500 to 2500 eV) is similar to ordinary sputtering which points to the same basic mechanism in both cases.     

Continuum light emission from sputtered species of graphite during ion beam irradiation

Light emission during sputtering of graphite targets with 1–10 keV Ne⁺, Kr⁺ and Xe⁺ beams has been investigated in the 180-600 nm wavelength range. Beside the characteristic lines of sputtered C₁ and C₁ ⁺, a continuum superimposed with a number of broad structures was observed in the 250-520 nm range, and having a maximum at 386 nm. Mass analysis of the sputtered flux confirmed the presence of negative carbon clusters C _m ^- , C₂ ^- being the dominant one. Ion beam parameters i.e. ion mass, energy, current density and ion dose were varied to identify the origin of the continuum emission. On the basis of the experimental results, it is suggested that the continuum is predominantly due to the overlapping of various band systems of sputtered C₂ with a small contribution from the heavier sputtered carbon clusters C_m (m>2). Received 24 September 1999 and Received in final form 11 February 2000     

Quantitative study of oxygen enhancement of sputtered ion yields. I. Argon ion bombardment of a silicon surface with O2 flood

A novel quantification approach is applied to determine in situ the amount of surface oxygen within the sputtered particle escape depth during steady-state sputter depth profiling of silicon under simultaneous oxygenation with an oxygen flood gas or with an oxygen primary ion beam. Quantification is achieved by comparing the secondary ion intensities of ¹⁶O that is adsorbed or implanted at the Si surface with the measured peak intensities of a calibrated ¹⁸O ion implant used as a reference standard. Sputtered ion yields can thereby be related to surface oxygen levels. In the present work the dependences of the partial silicon sputter yield Y and of the positive and negative secondary ion useful yields UY(X^±) (X = B, O, Al, Si, P) on the oxygen/silicon ratio, O/Si, in the sputtered flux are studied for ⁴⁰Ar⁺ bombardment of Si with simultaneous O₂ flooding. The silicon sputter yield is found to decrease with increasing flood pressure and O/Si ratio by up to a factor of 3. Both positive and negative secondary ion yields are enhanced by the presence of oxygen at the silicon surface. The useful ion yield of Si⁺ scales non-linearly with the atom fraction of surface oxygen; this behavior is shown to invalidate models that suggest that Si⁺ ion yield enhancement is dominated either by isolated oxygen atoms or by formation of SiO₂ precipitates. In contrast a microscopic statistical model that assumes that local Si⁺ ion formation depends only on the number of oxygen atoms coordinated to the Si atom to be ejected fits the ion yield data quantitatively.     

Mechanism of negative ion emission from surfaces of ferroelectrics

Experimental studies of the mechanism of negative ion and cluster ion emission from surfaces of ferroelectrics are described. The emission was produced by negative voltage pulses with the amplitude of about 400 V, with a rapid rise-time (below 10 ns) and a slow decay‐time (several μs). The pulses were applied between the back side of the ferroelectric sample and the metal tip touching the front emitting side. The surface of the ferroelectrics could be cleaned in situ by 1 keV Ar⁺ bombardment. The morphologic changes around the tip were observed with an atomic force microscope (AFM). Mostly negative ions and cluster ions were emitted and studied in our experiments. Positive ions were detected with much lower probability and are produced by an entirely different microscopic process than negative ions. Masses as well as energies of emitted ions were measured with a time-of-flight (TOF) spectrometer and compared with available spontaneous desorption (SD) spectra and Cs‐SIMS spectra in order to clarify the mechanism of the emission. The trajectory of ions emitted from the sample was studied by computer simulation. The conclusion of these studies is that the negative ion emission is caused by the Coulomb explosion of a polarization cloud rapidly formed at the front edge of the pulse. The explosion takes place in the vicinity of the tip-sample contact at distances several tens of μm from the contact where the stabilizing effect of the positively charged tip is already small.     

Optimum ion implantation and annealing conditions for stimulating secondary negative ion emission

The type, energy, ion dose, and heating temperature required to ensure a stable minimum work function of a surface in one experimental cycle (at least 2–3 min) are determined. Secondary ion mass spectrograms are recorded using Cs⁺, Ba⁺, and Ar⁺ ions. Cu, Al, and Mo samples are studied. The optimum ion implantation conditions and the activation temperature that provide a stable minimum work function of the sample surfaces are found. The samples implanted by Ba⁺ ions withstand higher temperature and current loads than the samples implanted by Cs⁺ ions. However, the work function in the case of Cs⁺ ions decreases stronger (to 1.9 eV). It is shown that neutral sputtered particles do not leave the surface at eφ ≤ 1.85–1.90 eV.     

Ion-induced secondary electron and negative ion emission from Mo/O

Absolute yields of secondary electrons and negative ions resulting from collisions of Na⁺ with Mo(100) and a polycrystalline molybdenum surface have been measured as a function of the oxygen coverage of the surface for impact energies below 500 eV. The sputtered negative ions have been identified with mass spectroscopy, and O⁻ is found to be the dominant sputtered negative ion for the surfaces at all oxygen coverages and impact energies. Both the electron and O⁻ yields have an impact energy threshold at about 50 eV and exhibit a strong dependence on oxygen coverage. The kinetic energy distributions of the secondary electrons and sputtered O⁻ were determined as functions of the oxygen coverage and impact energy. The distributions for O⁻ are characterized by a narrow low-energy peak (at 1–2 eV) followed by a low-level high-energy tail. The secondary electrons have a narrow (FWHM 1–2 eV) kinetic energy distribution, centered approximately at 1–2 eV. The shapes of the distributions and their most probable energies are essentially invariant with impact energy, oxygen coverage and the nature of the Mo surface. The emission is explained and analyzed in terms of a simple model which involves a collision-induced electronic excitation of the MoO⁻ surface state. The decay of this excited state leads to the production of both secondary electrons and O⁻ with energy distributions and yields comparable to those observed.     

Anomalous thermal field emission

The field emissivity of ZrO₂/W(100) nanoheterostructures made by applying a thin (≈10 nm) ZrO₂ layer on the surface of a needle-like W(100) microcrystal is studied. At a nanoheterostructure temperature of ≈2000 K, electron emission is found to start at a low extracting (Laplace) field (below 50 V/μm). Under the conditions of steady electron emission, the emission current density from the surface of the heterostructure may reach anomalously high values (～10⁸ A/cm²). A phenomenological model of anomalous thermal field emission of electrons from the surface of the conductor (metal)-thin insulator heterostructure is suggested.     

Secondary electron emission of sputtered alumina films

Secondary electron emission yieldδ was measured for thin films of alumina prepared byrf sputtering technique. Single pulse method was used along with 4-gridleed optics system to determineδ. Maximum value of 4·3 was obtained at primary energy of 350 eV. The Dionne’s theory was used to analyse the results and the emission probability escape depth and absorption coefficient of secondaries were also estimated. Fairly good correlation is observed between experimental and theoretical values ofδ for beam energies upto 1 keV.     

Analysis of solids by secondary ion and sputtered neutral mass spectrometry

A mass spectrometer is described, which allows the analysis of sputtered neutral and charged particles as well as of residual gas composition. This combined SIMS, SNMS, and RGA instrument consists of a scanning primary ion beam column, an electron impact ionizer, an electrostatic energy filter and an rf quadrupole mass analyzer.Various examples of surface and bulk analysis are presented which demonstrate the beneficial complementary features of these techniques. These are, in particular: a substantial reduction of the matrix effect and fewer complications with samples of low electrical conductivity in SNMS, and the possibility of measuring the depth distribution of gases included in small cavities in the solid in the SNMS/RGA mode. SIMS, on the other hand, allows in many cases higher detection sensitivities.EURATOM Association     

磁控溅射铂抑制镀银表面的二次电子发射

降低表面的二次电子产额是抑制微波部件二次电子倍增效应和提升功率阈值的有效途径之一,目前主要采用在表面构造陷阱结构和沉积非金属薄膜的方法降低二次电子产额,其缺点是会改变部件的电性能.针对此问题,采用在表面沉积高功函数且化学惰性的金属薄膜来降低二次电子产额.首先,采用磁控溅射方法在铝合金镀银样片表面沉积100 nm铂,测量结果显示沉积铂后样片的二次电子产额最大值由2.40降至1.77,降幅达26%.其次,用相关唯象模型对二次电子发射特性测量数据进行了拟合,获得了在40-1500 eV能量范围内能够准确描述样片二次电子产额特性的Vaughan模型参数,以及在0-50 eV能量范围内能够很好地拟合二次电子能谱曲线的Chung-Everhart模型参数.最后,将获得的实验数据和相关拟合参数用于Ku频段阻抗变换器的二次电子倍增效应功率阈值仿真研究,结果表明通过沉积铂可将部件的功率阈值由7500 W提升至36000 W,证实了所提方法的有效性.研究结果为金属材料二次电子发射特性的研究提供实验数据参考,对抑制大功率微波部件二次电子倍增效应具有参考价值.     

Pressure independence of secondary ion emission enhancement of Al during oxidation at low pressure

We have performed measurements of positive secondary ion emission during low pressure oxidation of aluminum. We found that the enhancement of the ion yield is independent of the pressure at which the exposure is made, in disagreement with what one would expect based on work function models of SIMS. This result partially supports “chemical” ion emission models.     

Fragmentation processes of vanadium and niobium oxide clusters sputtered by ion bombardment

The mass distribution of emitted V _n O _m ^? and Nb _n O _m ^? clusters and their unimolecular decay by all stoichiometrically possible fragmentation channels, which takes place under the sputtering of niobium and vanadium surfaces and blowing by oxygen, are studied. It is shown that the formation, excitation, and unimolecular fragmentation of V _n O _m ^? and Nb _n O _m ^? clusters can be described by a statistical recombination mechanism. Clusters are formed over the target surfaces as a result of binary collisions of independently sputtered ions, atoms, and molecules.     

大气等离子体中负氧离子产生和演化过程数值模拟

文章利用数值模拟程序对不同条件下大气等离子体中负氧离子的形成及演化过程进行数值模拟.结果发现:负氧离子数密度衰减过程中出现拐点,进入一个较为平稳的状态;平稳期负氧离子数密度与初始电子数密度近似成线性关系;水分含量对负氧离子的演化过程具有重要影响,水分含量越高,负氧离子或其团簇数密度平稳期后的衰减越缓慢. 关键词： 等离子体 数值模拟 负氧离子     

Stimulation of secondary negative ion emission by implantation of alkaline ions into the surface layer of a solid followed by heating

A new method of stimulating secondary negative ion emission is suggested that is based on implantation of alkaline ions into the surface layer of a solid with subsequent heating to a temperature providing optimal coverage of the surface (about half a monolayer) by activator (alkaline) ions. It is shown that, by appropriately selecting the implantation dose (10¹⁸–10¹⁹ cm⁻³) and surface temperature (500–900°C), one can reach such a degree of coverage of the sample surface by activator ions that its work function eφ becomes minimal: 1.9 eV for molybdenum and 2.1 eV for copper. It is found that, with the implantation (irradiation) dose and surface temperature chosen properly, one can, by means of outdiffusion of cesium atoms, achieve such a degree of surface coverage that remains unchanged during the continuous sputtering of the surface by a cesium ion beam.     

Anomalous mobility enhancement in Si doping superlattices

Enhanced Hall mobility has been measured in Si doping superlattices with pipi or nini doping profiles grown by molecular beam epitaxy. Although the carrier concentration is large, in the range of 10¹⁸cm⁻³, the mobility of holes in the pipi doping superlattice has the temperature dependence such as that expressed in the T^−2.2 law which is characteristic of high purity bulk crystals. The hole mobility is about twice that of high purity crystals, rising up to 40,000 cm²/V.s at about 30 K. In the case that p-type impurity concentration is comparable to n-type impurity concentration, no mobility enhancement is observed and the mobility is anomalously depressed. The mechanisms for drastical change in the mobility of doping superlattices have not yet been clarified.     

Anomalous excitation of high-frequency bursts caused by applied low-frequency ion modes

Experimental results on an upconversion phenomenon of coherent low-frequency modes to high-frequency bursts in a magnetized plasma are reported. In the presence of a coherent low-frequency oscillation, the turbulent bursts with frequency around $\text{1}\text{2}\text{ω}{}_{\mathrm{<mtext>ce</mtext>}}$ were excited in a magnetized plasma without an intense electron beam injection. The possibility of high-frequency wave generation caused by the new plasma maser effect on which is controverted recently is also discussed.     

Low-temperature ion emission

Technical Physics - The kinetics of alkali metal ion emission from metal surfaces heated to temperatures of 800–2500 K is studied. The ion current relaxation is described by the relationship...     

Anomalous emission of electrons from MIM systems

In this paper the emission of electrons from thin-film systems of the structure metal-dielectric-metal (Al-Al₂O₃-Au) is studied experimentally in the voltage region below the work potential of the top electrode. The temperature and voltage dependences of the angular distribution, energy distributionsN(E) andN (Einx) and energy-angular distribution of emitted both anomalous and normal electrons were obtained.This paper is based on the RNDr thesis of the first author.