Selective nucleation and discovery of organic polymorphs through epitaxy with single crystal substrates.

Crystallization of 5-methyl-2-[(2-nitrophenyl)amino]-3-thiophenecarbonitrile (1), previously found to produce six conformational polymorphs from solution, on single-crystal pimelic acid (PA) substrates results in selective and oriented growth of the metastable "YN" (yellow needle) polymorph on the (101)(PA) faces of the substrate. Though the freshly cleaved substrate crystals expose (101)(PA) and (111)(PA) faces, which are both decorated with [101](PA) ledges that could serve as nucleation sites, crystal growth of YN occurs on only (101)(PA). Goniometry measurements performed with an atomic force microscope reveal that the (001)(YN) plane contacts (101)(PA) with a crystal orientation [100](YN)//[010](PA) and [010](YN)//[101](PA). A geometric lattice analysis using a newly developed program dubbed GRACE (geometric real-space analysis of crystal epitaxy) indicates that this interfacial configuration arises from optimal two-dimensional epitaxy and that among the six polymorphs of 1, only the YN polymorph, in the observed orientation, achieves reasonable epitaxial match to (101)(PA). The geometric analysis also reveals that none of the polymorphs, including YN, can achieve comparable epitaxial match with (111)(PA), consistent with the absence of nucleation on this crystal face. In contrast, sublimation of 1 on cleaved succinic acid (SA) substrates, which expose large (010)(SA) faces decorated with steps along [101](SA), affords growth of several polymorphs, each with multiple orientations, as well as oriented crystals of a new metastable polymorph on the (010)(SA) surfaces. The lack of polymorphic selectivity on (010)(SA) can be explained by the geometric lattice analysis, which reveals low-grade epitaxial matches between (010)(SA) and several polymorphs of 1 but no inherent selectivity toward a single polymorph. These observations demonstrate the sensitivity of crystal nucleation to substrate surface structure, the potential of crystalline substrates for selective nucleation and discovery of polymorphs, and the utility of geometric lattice modeling for screening of substrate libraries for controlling polymorphism.     

几种极性有机晶体的生长习性与形成机理 2: 分子堆积、界面结构与晶体的习性

极性有机晶体在不同的溶剂中具有明显不同的生长习性, 主要有两个方面的原因: 一是极性有机晶体属非中心对称性晶类, 晶体具有极轴, 极轴的存在对分子堆积和晶体生长具有重要影响; 另一是极性有机晶体的界面结构不同, 溶剂与晶体界面的相互作用不同, 使得晶体同一面族的生长速率不同, 从而导致了晶体习性的改变。本文从几种典型极性有机晶体的分子排列和结构特征出发, 着重探讨了极性有机晶体的界面结构的差异对晶体习性的影响; 结合晶体生长界面与溶剂分子的相互作用进一步理解了晶体生长的溶剂效应; 通过理解极性有机晶体的习性机制, 探讨了晶体实际形态的控制。     

Measuring free-energy difference between crystal polymorphs through eutectic melting

We describe a method to measure the free-energy difference, DeltaG, between crystal polymorphs from their calorimetric data of eutectic melting with a common additive. The use of different additives yields DeltaG as a function of temperature. The method is suitable for crystals that chemically decompose or physically transform before melting. It applies to not only true polymorphs but also pairs of racemate and conglomerate of resolvable enantiomers. We illustrate the method with the polymorphs of glycine, d-mannitol, and tazofelone and report a new value (123 degrees C) for the enantiotropic transition temperature of alpha and gamma glycine. We show how different additives (including a liquid additive, water) can be used for different compounds. The DeltaG data thus obtained are important for structure-stability studies and controlling crystallization in polymorphic systems.     

Shape‐Dependent Catalytic Activity of Silver Nanoparticles for the Oxidation of Styrene

Metal nanoparticles with different shapes have different crystallographic faces. It is therefore of interest to study the effect of the shape of metal nanoparticles on their catalytic activity in various organic and inorganic reactions. Truncated triangular silver nanoplates with well‐defined planes were synthesized by a simple solvothermal approach. The activity of these truncated triangular silver nanoparticles was compared with that of cubic and near‐spherical silver nanoparticles in the oxidation of styrene in colloidal solution. It was found that the crystal faces of silver nanoparticles play an essential role in determining the catalytic oxidation properties. The silver nanocubes had the {100} crystal faces as the basal plane, whereas truncated triangular nanoplates and near‐spherical nanoparticles predominantly exposed the most‐stable {111} crystal faces. As a result, the rate of the reaction over the nanocubes was more than 14 times higher than that on nanoplates and four times higher than that on near‐spherical nanoparticles.     

Growth and Dissolution of Organic Crystals with “Tailor-Made” Inhibitors—Implications in Stereochemistry and Materials Science

When crystals of organic compounds are grown in the presence of growth inhibitors, there is a change in crystal morphology. A stereochemical correlation exists between the crystal structure, its modified morphology, and the molecular structure of the inhibitor. This correlation has been successfully exploited for the efficient resolution of conglomerates, the engineering of organic crystals with desired morphologies, the direct and relative assignment of the absolute configurations of chiral molecules and crystals, and for the design of a new model for the spontaneous generation of optical activity. In an analogous way dissolution of organic crystals in the presence of these growth inhibitors induces etch pits at preselected faces. The effect of solvent on crystal growth has been analyzed in some model systems. The experimental results are complemented by atom-atom potential energy calculations.     

Specific Features of the Bromination of Multiple C–C Bonds in the Analysis of Surface Layers of Organic Compounds

The use of the bromination reaction and X-ray photoelectron spectrometry for the determination of multiple C–C bonds in surface layers of certain organic compounds was considered. It was demonstrated that the reactivity of C–C bonds depends on their multiplicity, chemical environment, and steric peculiarities of reacting molecules. Side reactions can occur in surface layers of brominated samples under the action of the environment. The neglect of these reactions leads to errors in the results of analysis.     

Influence of the primary structure of enzymes on the formation of CaCO2 polymorphs: a comparison of plant (Canavalia ensiformis) and bacterial (Bacillus pasteurii) ureases

The influence of the primary structures of plant (Canavalia ensiformis) and bacterial (Bacillus pasteurii) ureases on the precipitation of calcium carbonate polymorphs in solutions of calcium salts and urea at room temperature was investigated. Despite a similar catalytic function in the decomposition of urea, these ureases exerted different influences on the crystal phase formation and on the development of unusual morphologies of calcium carbonate polymorphs. Spherical and uniform vaterite particles were precipitated rather than calcite in the presence of Bacillus urease, while the presence of Canavalia urease resulted in the precipitation of calcite only. Vaterite particles were shown to be built up of nanosized crystallites, proving the importance of nanoscale aggregation processes on the formation of colloidal carbonates. Reduction of the concentration of Bacillus urease in the reacting solution results in the formation of calcite crystals with a more complex surface morphology than the ones obtained by Canavalia urease. These differences may be explained by dissimilarities in the amino acid sequences of the two examined ureases and their different roles in nucleation and physicochemical interactions with the surface of the growing crystals, during the precipitation processes. This study exemplifies the diversity of proteins produced by different organisms for the same function, and the drastic effects of subtle differences in their primary structures on crystal phase formation and growth morphology of calcium carbonate precipitates, which occur as inorganic components in a large number of biogenic structures.     

Identification of Molecular Crystals Capable of Undergoing an Acyl‐Transfer Reaction Based on Intermolecular Interactions in the Crystal Lattice

Investigation of the intermolecular acyl‐transfer reactivity in molecular crystals of myo‐inositol orthoester derivatives and its correlation with crystal structures enabled us to identify the essential parameters to support efficient acyl‐transfer reactions in crystals: 1) the favorable geometry of the nucleophile (? OH) and the electrophile (C?O) and 2) the molecular assembly, reinforced by C? H???π interactions, which supports a domino‐type reaction in crystals. These parameters were used to identify another reactive crystal through a data‐mining study of the Cambridge Structural Database. A 2:1 co‐crystal of 2,3‐naphthalene diol and its di‐p‐methylbenzoate was selected as a potentially reactive crystal and its reactivity was tested by heating the co‐crystals in the presence of solid sodium carbonate. A facile intermolecular p‐toluoyl group transfer was observed as predicted. The successful identification of reactive crystals opens up a new method for the detection of molecular crystals capable of exhibiting acyl‐transfer reactivity.     

Wettability of paracetamol polymorphic forms I and II

It is well known that different forms of solid-state polymorphic materials exhibit diverse physicochemical properties. The variations in the wetting and surface energetics of a pair of organic polymorphic solids are reported in detail here for the first time. The growth of macroscopic single crystals (facet area >1 cm(2)) of paracetamol has enabled for the first time the direct measurement of advancing contact angles, theta(A) for water and diiodomethane on a range of specific facets for two polymorphs; forms I and II. Not only was the wetting behavior found to be anisotropic, as has been recently reported, but the differing polymorphic forms exhibited significant variations in their wetting behavior for the same Miller indexed faces. The (001), (010), and (110) faces were studied, and the observed wettability data differed confirming the independence of facet wettability and Miller indices for both polymorphs. theta(A) was found to be very sensitive to the local surface chemistry for each facet examined, which in turn is a direct consequence of the molecular packing and structure within the crystal lattice. On the basis of the theta(A) value of water, the hydrophilicity rankings for the facet surfaces of form II examined is: (010) approximately (110) > (001). This experimental study highlights complex surface chemistry of polymorphic solids in which anisotropic surface energies were observed for both forms of paracetamol, strongly suggesting that such anisotropic wetting behavior is the norm for organic crystalline solids. Furthermore, the same Miller indexed facets for forms I and II exhibited very different surface chemical behavior, such that it was not possible to infer understanding about one form based upon knowledge of another form.     

The Emergence of Organic Single‐Crystal Electronics

Organic semiconducting single crystals are perfect for both fundamental and application‐oriented research due to the advantages of free grain boundaries, few defects, and minimal traps and impurities, as well as their low‐temperature processability, high flexibility, and low cost. Carrier mobilities of greater than 10 cm² V^?1 s^?1 in some organic single crystals indicate a promising application in electronic devices. The progress made, including the molecular structures and fabrication technologies of organic single crystals, is introduced and organic single‐crystal electronic devices, including field‐effect transistors, phototransistors, p‐n heterojunctions, and circuits, are summarized. Organic two‐dimensional single crystals, cocrystals, and large single crystals, together with some potential applications, are introduced. A state‐of‐the‐art overview of organic single‐crystal electronics, with their challenges and prospects, is also provided.     

Structural diversity in two-dimensional coordination polymers constructed from simple building-blocks; a rare example of coordination polymer polymorphs structurally characterised from multiple crystals

A family of two-dimensional coordination polymers formed from the reaction of Cd(NO(3))(2) with pyrazine or pyrimidine is reported, including rare examples of polymorphic coordination polymers which crystallise as multiple crystals. Six coordination polymers have been structurally characterised, four for pyrazine and two for pyrimidine-based systems, all of which form two-dimensional arrays utilising pyrazine/pyrimidine bridging, in some instances in combination with nitrate bridging. The compounds form either 4(4) grids (1,3,4,5), or in one instance, a 6(3) herringbone sheet structure (2). In the case of 3, two polymorphs have been identified, 3a and 3b, in which the three-dimensional arrangements of the coordination polymers differ only in the relative ordering of adjacent two-dimensional sheets. It was found that these two polymorphs crystallise in a simultaneous fashion such that each crystal studied was found to contain regions of both polymorphs and was believed to be a multiple crystal. Assessment of the phase purity of the product from the reaction of Cd(NO(3))(2) with either pyrazine or pyrimidine indicates that compounds 1and 5 are not formed when the products are formed by rapid precipitation but only when using slow-diffusion methods. It is also apparent that in almost all instances more than one product is formed from a given reaction thereby illustrating the complexity of coordination polymer formation even when using simple building-blocks. For the crystal engineer this complexity is perhaps best illustrated by the simultaneous formation of 3a and 3b where no chemical interactions differentiate the two polymorphs, presenting a seemingly insurmountable complexity in the engineering of these systems.     

Supermikroskopie bei organischen Kristallreaktionen

Supermicroscopic techniques like STM, AFM and SNOM are able to image surfaces down to atomic resolution. Their application to chemically reacting rough organic surfaces leads to unprecedented results which do not accord with the topochemical principle of minimum molecular movement. Rather, feature-forming long-range molecular movements are essential for chemical reactivity. Thus, waste-free solid-state reactions proceed in three steps: phase rebuilding, phase transformation and crystal disintegration. Liquid phases are avoided in solid photochemical, solid thermal, gadsolid and solid/solid syntheses, the upscaling of which will provide the future chemical production techniques. Chemical contrast with SNOM is shown for the first time. It complements the AFM results which are interpreted in terms of crystal structure.     

Quantitative reaction cascades of ninhydrin in the solid state

Crystalline ninhydrin (1) undergoes waste-free solid-state cascade reactions with dimedone, L-proline, three o-phenylenediamines, o-mercaptoaniline, two ureas, three thioureas, and methyl 3-aminocrotonate. The yields are quantitative and give pure crystalline products without workup just by milling stoichiometric mixtures of the crystalline reagents. The structures of the new and the previously obtained products with lower yields from solutions are established or confirmed by spectroscopic data and density functional calculations at the B3LYP/6-31G* level. The success of 3- and 4-cascade reactions in the crystal without melting is unusual and of unmatched atom economy. They are mechanistically investigated with atomic force microscopy techniques (AFM) on six different faces of 1 when o-phenylenediamine was the reagent (substitution, elimination, cyclization, elimination) and interpreted on the basis of known crystal structure data. Strict correlations to the crystal packings are observed. The characteristic surface features grow to microm heights in some cases at distances of 0.5 mm from the contact edge of the reacting crystals. The waste-free and easy syntheses of highly functionalized (C=O; O-H; C=N) heterocycles or of a tetraketone are also of interest for synthetic use.     

A novel organic intercalation system with layered polymer crystals as the host compounds derived from 1,3-diene carboxylic acids

A new type of organic intercalation system using poly(muconic acid) and poly(sorbic acid) crystals as the host compounds is described. The layered polymer crystals as the host are derived from benzyl-, dodecyl-, or naphthylmethylammonium salts of (Z,Z)-muconic or (E,E)-sorbic acids by topochemical polymerization. The subsequent solid-state hydrolysis of the resulting ammonium polymer crystals provides the corresponding carboxylic acid polymer crystals. When alkylamines are reacted with poly(muconic acid) or poly(sorbic acid) crystals dispersed in methanol at room temperature for a few hours, the intercalation proceeds to give layered ammonium polymer crystals via solid-state reactions, in which the polymers maintain a layered structure throughout. The interplanar spacing value of the polymer crystals changes according to the size of the guest molecules; that is, it exactly depends on the carbon number of the alkylamines used for each reaction of poly(muconic acid) or poly(sorbic acid) crystals. The stacking structure of alkyl chains with a tilt in the intercalated alkylammonium layers exists irrespective of the chemical and crystal structures of the host polymers. The intercalation of higher alkylamines into poly(muconic acid) crystals proceeds fast and quantitatively, while the conversion is dependent on the reaction conditions such as the structure and amount of the amine and the reaction time during the intercalation with poly(sorbic acid) crystals, due to the difference in the repeating layered structures of these polymer crystals. Some functional amines are also used as the guest molecules for this organic intercalation system.     

Thermal reactions of selected solids including reactants that melt during chemical change

Selected kinetic and mechanistic studies of thermal reactions of initially solid substances are reviewed with emphasis on the evidence that some of these chemical changes proceed with the essential participation of melting. The reactions considered are classified on the extent and the role of such melting and the various types of behaviour observed are discussed with reference to solid state rate processes in crystals. It is stressed that melting is an important feature in theoretical considerations of crystal reactivity because chemical changes often proceed more rapidly in a melt than in the solid state. However, literature reports concerned with reactions of solids do not always explicitly mention the possibility of melting during discussions of reactions mechanisms. The present paper comments on methods capable of detecting liquefaction during reaction, a feature of behaviour that is not always easily identified experimentally. Also considered here is the recognition of reaction intermediates, which provide important evidence concerning the course of the chemical changes through which the reactant is transformed into product. This short review draws attention to the considerable value of chemical evidence in elucidating mechanisms of reactions of solids including the necessity for identifying intermediates and the role of any melt or liquid participating.     

重(三硝基乙基)乙二硝胺的热分解 Ⅱ. 晶体性质与热分解动力学参量的关系

我们曾发现,重(三硝基乙基)乙二硝胺(BTNE)晶体热分解反应速度常数k的数值与该晶体重结晶条件有关系,而不同重结晶过程有可能给出性质各异的品体。在本文中,作者们利用差示扫描量热(DSC)、X-光多晶衍射、电子扫描显微镜(SEM)技术研究了工作[1]中提到的十种BTNE晶体,BTNE的单晶(BT-M)和未经任何重结品处理的实验室合成的BTNE粗品(BT-U)的晶体性质。利用DSC和X-光多晶衍射技术研究了BTNE晶体的晶型。同一晶体的不同晶型具有各自的X-光衍射图,而不同晶型间的转换可在DSC曲线上表现出存在有相应的吸热峰。工作[1]中给出的DSC曲线表明,     

Electron and hole mobilities in polymorphs of benzene and naphthalene: role of intermolecular interactions

The hole and electron mobilities of the polymorphs of benzene and naphthalene crystals are estimated through quantum chemical calculations. The reorganization energy (lambda) and the charge-transfer matrix elements (Hmn) calculated for the two molecules reveal that these crystals can be used for dual applications, for both hole and electron conductance. The electron mobilities are five to eight times more than the hole mobilities for benzene while for naphthalene, the hole mobilities are almost an order magnitude more than the electron mobilities. The transfer matrices for both hole and electron conductance decrease monotonically with increase in the intermolecular distances. Calculations for various unique stacked dimers as determined from the radial distribution functions in both the crystals for the two molecules show strong dependence on the orientations of the rings and for similar intermolecular separations; Hmnhole is larger than Hmnelectron. The crystal mobilities are calculated from the weighted average over all the unique pair of molecules. The overall preference in a crystal for hole or electron mobility depends on the mutual competition of lambdahole/lambdaelectron and Hmnhole/Hmnelectron. From our microscopic understanding of essential parameters, specific dimers are identified from the crystalline solids of the two polymorphs and experimental strategies are suggested to enrich such pairs in aggregates for enhancing mobilities for these organic solids.     

Kinetics of photochromic reactions in condensed phases

A review of kinetic data reported for a few organic photochromic systems is given. The kinetics of processes taking place in solid matrices and in crystals was briefly discussed. The effect of solid matrices manifests itself in the kinetics being controlled by distributions rather than by discrete rate constants. The photochromic reactions often require a substantial free volume to occur, hence they seldom take place in crystals without a destruction of the crystal lattice. The activation energies of thermally driven reactions are in this case related rather to crystal parameters than to the reactions themselves.     

铅基复合钙钛矿型弛豫铁电单晶的生长基元与生长机理Ⅰ.PMNT单晶的表面形貌、负晶结构及生长基元的组装与拆分

铅基复合钙钛矿型弛豫铁电单晶体PMNT的生长基元为多种[BO_6]配位八面体,晶体生长过程可视为多种八面体基元与Pb~(2 )的组装过程.这些生长基元向{111}面叠合时易采取法向生长机制,向{001}面叠合时易采取层状生长机制,由此决定了晶体生长速度的各向异性与晶体的形貌.Bridgman法生长的PMNT晶体在生长过程中由内向生长机制形成规则的负晶结构;在晶体生长过程中,在其自然表面上可形成正形与负形两种形貌;在高温退火过程中,由于PbO的分解,晶体表面上可形成类似“蚀象”的构型,这些可从[BO_6]八面体生长基元的组装或拆分方面获得解释.     

铅基复合钙钛矿型弛豫铁电单晶的生长基元与生长机理1: PMNT单晶的表面形貌 、负晶结构及生长基元的组装与拆分

铅基复合钙钛矿型弛豫铁电单晶体PMNT的生长基元为多种[BO~6]配位八面体,晶体生长过程可视为多种八面体基元与Pb^2^+的组装过程。这些生长基元向{111}面叠合时易采取法向生长机制,向{001}面叠合时易采取层状生长机制,由此决定了晶体生长速度的各向异性与晶体的形貌。Bridgman法生长的PMNT晶体在生长过程中由内向生长机制形成规则的负晶结构;在晶体生长过程中,在其自然表面上可形成正形与负形两种形貌;在高温退火过程中,由于PbO的分解,晶体表面上可形成类似"蚀象"的构型,这些可从[BO~6]八面体生长基元的组装或拆分方面获得解释。