Ion implantation damage and crystalline-amorphous transition in Ge

Experimental studies on the damage produced in (100) Ge substrates by implantation of Ge⁺ ions at different energies (from 25 to 600 keV), fluences (from 2×10¹³ to 4×10¹⁴ cm⁻²) and temperature (room temperature, RT, or liquid-nitrogen temperature, LN₂T) have been performed by using the Rutherford backscattering spectrometry technique. We demonstrated that the higher damage rate of Ge with respect to Si is due to both the high stopping power of germanium atoms and the low mobility of point defects within the collision cascades. The amorphization of Ge has been modeled by employing the critical damage energy density model in a large range of implantation energies and fluences both at RT and LN₂T. The experimental results for implantation at LN₂T were fitted using a critical damage energy density of ∼1 eV/atom. A fictitious value of ∼5 eV/atom was obtained for the samples implanted at RT, essentially because at RT the damage annihilation plays a non-negligible role against the crystalline–amorphous transition phase. The critical damage energy density model was found to stand also for other ions implanted in crystalline Ge (Ar⁺ and Ga⁺).     

Ionizing particles may create shockwaves

To find a model that describes the gas diffusion on irradiated polymers (Makrofol KG polycarbonate) the diffusion constants have been measured with argon as diffusion gas. The polymers were irradiated with uranium, gold and lead ions of about 10 MeV/u and ion fluences between 1×10¹⁰ and 4×10¹¹ ions/cm². The ion irradiated probes show two quite different dependencies of the diffusion constant on the ion energy loss. These effects are strongly related to the fluence of the irradiation. In case of low ion fluences, the diffusion constant is up to 8 times higher than that of pristine material. In the probes with high ion fluences we observe a decrease of diffusion constant to half the value of the pristine material. To understand the dependence of the diffusion constant on ion fluences we apply a model of compacting. This model describes the compacting ability of shockwaves arising from latent tracks. A track formation model is suggested. When an ion penetrates the foil it creates shockwaves around its path. These shockwaves put compacting forces on earlier created latent tracks in the same foil.     

Intensity profile distortion at the processing image plane of a focused femtosecond laser below the critical power: Analysis and counteraction

Femtosecond laser surface processing of materials allows for precise micro or sub-micrometer machining with restricted detrimental side effects. Thus, fine control of the laser intensity distribution (repeatability) in the processing plane is of outmost importance for industrial implementation. In this paper, we study the influence on non-linear effects on the machining quality. We experimentally study the profiles of cavities machined at the image plane of a focused femtosecond laser for a large set of fluences on stainless steel below the critical power. A strong distortion of the cavities is observed for high energetic levels. A beam analysis performed in the machining conditions reveals that the cavity profile follows the laser beam profile even at high fluences where the beam undergoes an increasing distortion. Numerical calculations of the laser beam distribution taking a Kerr effect into account are presented showing a good agreement with the experimental laser profile. To counteract the beam distortion at high fluences, we propose and successfully employ a robust solution consisting in geometrically forming the image processing plane before the laser focusing point. This ensures a beam profile free of distortion even at high fluences. Experimental evidence is made, showing a significant quality increase of the cavity profiles with an image plane placed before the focus point.     

Solvent-related effects in MAPLE mechanism

To study the role of the solvent and of the laser fluence in the matrix-assisted pulsed laser evaporation (MAPLE) process, we used a soft polymer (polydimethylsiloxane—PDMS) as “sensing surface” and toluene as solvent. Thin films of the PDMS polymer were placed in the position of the growing film, while a frozen toluene target was irradiated with an ArF laser at the conventional fluences used in MAPLE depositions (60–250 mJ/cm²). Apart the absence of solute, the MAPLE typical experimental conditions for the deposition of thin organic layers were tested. The effects on the PDMS films of the toluene target ablation, at different fluences, were studied using atomic force microscopy and contact angles measurements. The results were compared with the effects produced on similar PDMS films by four different treatments (exposure to a drop of the solvent, to saturated toluene vapors and to plasma sources of two different powers). From this comparative study, it appears that depending on the MAPLE experimental conditions: (1) the MAPLE process may be “semidry” rather than purely dry (namely the solvent is likely to be present in the deposition environment near the growing film), (2) the solvent, if sufficiently volatile, is in form of vapor molecules (neutral, ionized and probably dissociated) rather than in liquid phase near the substrate and (3) at relatively high laser fluences (>150 mJ/cm²), the formation of an intense plasma plume results which can damage/affect a soft substrate as well as a growing polymer film.     

Structure of liquid bismuth calculated from pseudo-potentials and molecular dynamics

Earlier calculations on liquid bismuth have been done by using five conduction electrons. However, this metal presents, in the liquid state, a gap in its electronic density of states that clearly separates the s and the p bands. Thus, the number of free electrons to be considered is affected by the existence of the gap. Previous calculations on the structure of liquid bismuth with five conduction electrons did not give satisfactory results. Molecular dynamics calculations using an effective potential derived from the empty core potential (ECP) and from the local optimised model potential (OMP) are presented and compared with the results obtained with three (p) and five (s + p) conduction electrons. The results, obtained for the first time to our knowledge for liquid bismuth at different temperatures, with three conduction electrons and OMP are in very good agreement with the Waseda structural experimental data. This approach using three conduction electrons is confirmed by resistivity calculations using the t-matrix model.     

Pulsed laser deposition of metals at target temperatures close to the melting point

Tin and bismuth metals are irradiated by KrF excimer laser pulses of fluences around 5 J/cm². Supressing the formation of surface inhomogeneities on the target is achieved by increasing the target temperature to close to its melting point. The characteristics of surface structures developed on targets ablated at room temperature and heated to approximately 40 °C below the melting point of the respective metal, are presented. Optical microscopy is used to follow the changes in the surface morphology of the deposited films, and especially in the surface number density of particulates. Approaching the melting point of the tin target resulted in a threefold decrease in surface number density of particulates, while for bismuth only a slight decrease was obtained. In the latter case, the anisotropic growth properties of bismuth precluded the effective smoothing of certain domains on the target surface, even at temperatures close to its melting point.     

A model of laser ablation with temperature-dependent material properties,vaporization, phase explosion and plasma shielding

Laser ablation of metals using nanosecond pulses occurs mainly due to vaporization. However, at high fluences, when the target is heated close to its critical temperature, phase explosion also occurs due to homogeneous nucleation. Due to a wide variation in target temperature, the material properties also show a considerable variation. In this paper, a model of laser ablation is presented that considers vaporization and phase explosion as mechanisms of material removal and also accounts for the variation in material properties up to critical temperature using some general and empirical theories. In addition, plasma shielding due to inverse bremsstrahlung and photo-ionization is considered. The model predicts accurately (within 5 %) the phase explosion threshold fluence of Al. The predictions of ablation depth by the model are in reasonable agreement with experimental measurements at low fluences. Whereas, the degree of error marginally increases at high laser fluences.     

Ion implantation in III–V compounds

In this work we studied the effect of electron and proton irradiation on the depth distribution of sodium in commercial soda-lime glasses. Samples have been irradiated at different energies and fluences.

The ²³Na (ρ, α) ²⁰Ne nuclear reaction has been used to determine the sodium profiles. No detectable changes in the sodium concentration profiles have been introduced during the measurements, the proton fluences and doses needed in this type of analysis being very low.

The obtained results support the hypothesis that the driving force for Na diffusion is mainly connected to the build-up of an electric field whose direction is determined by the projectile charge, while Na mobility changes because of the local temperature increase due to the beam power dissipation.     

Assessment of laser-induced thermal load on silicon nanostructures based on ion desorption yields

Experimental assessment of the thermal load induced by fast laser pulses on micro- and nanostructures through IR imaging is currently too slow and lacks the spatial resolution to be useful. In this paper, we introduce a method based on measuring the laser-induced yields of ions to compare the thermal loads on nanofabricated silicon structures, when exposed to nanosecond laser pulses. The laser fluences at which the ion yields of, for example, sodiated and potassiated peptides ions are equal for two different structures correspond to equivalent thermal loads. Using alkalinated peptides is a convenient choice because the corresponding ion intensities are easily measured up to the melting point of silicon. As an example, we compare the nanosecond laser heating of silicon nanopost arrays with diverse post diameters and periodicities. Assessment of the thermal load through ion yield measurements can also be used to verify model assumptions for heat transport regimes in nanostructures.     

Temperature dependence of bismuth structures under high pressure

It is unclear whether there is a liquid-liquid phase transition or not in the bismuth melt at high temperature and high pressure. If so, it will be necessary to confirm the boundary of the liquid-liquid phase transition and clarify whether it is a first-order phase transition. Here, based on x-ray absorption spectra and simulations, the temperature dependence of bismuth structures is investigated under different pressures. According to the similarity of characteristic peaks of x-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) spectra, we estimate the possible temperature ranges of liquid-liquid phase transition to be 779-799 K at 2.74 GPa and 859-879 K at 2.78 GPa, 809-819 K at 3.38 GPa and 829-839 K at 3.39 GPa and 729-739 K at 4.78 GPa. Using ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD) simulations, we obtain the stable structures of the bismuth melt at different temperatures and pressures, and calculated their electronic structures. Meanwhile, two stable phases (phase III-like and phase IV-like) of bismuth melts are obtained from different initial phases of bismuth solids (phase III and phase IV) under the same condition (3.20 GPa and 800 K). Assuming that the bismuth melt undergoes a phase transition from IV-like to III-like between 809 K and 819 K at 3.38 GPa, the calculated electronic structures are consistent with the XANES spectra, which provides a possible explanation for the first-order liquid-liquid phase transition.     

Dielectric and relaxation properties of thermally evaporated nanostructured bismuth sulfide thin films

Nanostructured bismuth sulfide thin films were prepared onto glass substrates with particle size of 21 nm by thermal evaporation using readily prepared bismuth sulfide nanocrystallite powder. The X-ray diffraction pattern revealed that bismuth sulfide thin films exhibit orthorhombic structure. The existence of quantum confinement effect was confirmed from the observed band gap energy of 1.86 eV. AC and DC electrical conductivity of Al/BiSnc/Al structures was investigated in the frequency range 0.5-100 kHz at different temperatures (303-463 K) under vacuum. The AC conductivity (σ_ac) is found to be proportional to angular frequency (ω^s). The obtained experimental result of the AC conductivity showed that the correlated barrier hopping model is the appropriate mechanism for the electron transport in the nanostructured bismuth sulfide thin films. DC conduction mechanism in these films was studied and possible conduction mechanism in the bismuth sulfide thin films was discussed.     

金属Bi的卸载熔化实验研究

在火炮上利用金属铋(Bi)直接撞击单晶LiF窗口, 开展了金属Bi反向碰撞的冲击加载-卸载实验研究, 实验采用激光位移干涉测试系统, 获得了金属Bi在11—16 GPa压力范围内完整的卸载粒子速度剖面. 实验结果结合特征线方法计算表明, 金属Bi经冲击加载进入体心立方相, 并在11—16 GPa冲击压力作用下发生了卸载熔化, 界面粒子速度剖面的卸载拐点, 对应着金属Bi经冲击加载后发生的卸载熔化, 而这一结论同Cox的理论计算及一维流体力学程序计算结果基本一致. 本文报道的金属Bi卸载波剖面解读技术, 对于认识冲击加载下其他相似材料相变具有实用价值.     

Anti-Stokes laser cooling in Yb(3+)-doped KPb(2) Cl(5) crystal

We report internal laser cooling in Yb(3+) -doped KPb(2)Cl(5) . From the quantum efficiency values measured in the heating and cooling regions by use of the photothermal deflection technique, we have obtained a room-temperature cooling efficiency of 0.2% in a sample doped with ~5x10(19)ions/cm(3) . Excitation spectra obtained under high irradiation fluences show an excess of fluorescence with regard to those obtained at low fluences, which agrees with the prediction of a model based on photon-ion-phonon interaction.     

Ultra-short laser ablation of dielectrics: Theoretical analysis of threshold damage fluence and ablation depth

A coupled theoretical model based on Fokker–Planck equation for ultra-short laser ablation of dielectrics is proposed. Multiphoton ionization and avalanche ionization are considered as the sources during the generation of free electrons. The impact of the electron distribution in thermodynamic nonequilibrium on relaxation time is taken into account. The calculation formula of ablation depth is deduced based on the law of energy conservation. Numerical calculations are performed for the femtosecond laser ablation of fused silica at 526 and 1053 nm. It shows that the threshold damage fluences and ablation depths resulted from the coupled model are in good agreement with the experimental results; while the damage thresholds resulted from the approximate model significantly differ from the experimental results for lasers of long pulse width. It is concluded that the coupled model can better describe the micro-process of ultra-short laser ablation of dielectrics.     

Thermal and mechanical damage of GaAs in picosecond regime

An in-depth study of the single pulse and multiple pulse laser (35 ps, 10 Hz and 1064 nm) damage for threshold fluence and greater fluence of GaAs 1 0 0 single crystal is presented. Damage which starts at a power 2×10¹¹ W/cm² in the form of pits occurs due to accumulation of laser induced microscopic defects. Effect of multiple pulse at first makes the pits more prominent in the form of Ga emission. Then the topmost layer is removed. If the number of pulses is further increased new pits are formed in the new surface (beneath the removed surface) and the above process is repeated. The thermal model is sufficient to explain this morphology. However, for larger fluences, a large cracking and fracture and the possibility of both Ga and As emission in different ratios suggest that mechanical damage is a dominant feature for higher fluences which arises due to generation of shock waves and rapid vaporization of material. Damage threshold has been calculated with the help of the thermal model given by Meyer et al. which is in good agreement with our experimental results.     

Acoustic substrate expansion in modelling dry laser cleaning of low absorbing substrates

Acoustic expressions have been derived for the thermal expansion of substrate surfaces due to irradiation by an exponential laser pulse. The result of acoustic effects on three substrates (silicon, glass and silica) with different absorptions has been calculated.It has been shown that for substrates having relatively low absorptions, like silica and glass, acoustic considerations substantially reduce thermal expansion of the substrate caused by irradiation by nanosecond laser pulses relative to a quasi-static expansion model. In particular, the expansion of the substrate occurs over a much longer time frame than when the quasi-static approximation holds. Consequently, acceleration of the substrate surface is greatly reduced and laser cleaning threshold fluences for particle removal are increased.The predictions of the model of Arnold et al. when developed for acoustic considerations give reasonable agreement with experimentally found threshold fluences for alumina particles on silica and glass substrates although it underestimates the ratio of the threshold cleaning fluences of silica and glass. This could be due to the model underestimating the contribution of surface expansion to the laser cleaning process. The influence of multiple reflections in the substrate and departure from one dimensionality in the heat conduction on the threshold fluence was found to be insignificant. Thermal contact between the particle and the substrate was also found to have little effect on laser cleaning threshold fluences. Another mechanism that may enhance surface expansion is the 3D focussing of radiation by the particles. PACS 42.62.Cf; 81.65.Cf; 42.55.Lt     

High-vacuum time-resolved laser-induced incandescence of flame-generated soot

We have measured time-resolved laser-induced incandescence of flame-generated soot under high-vacuum conditions (4.1×10⁻⁶ mbar) at an excitation wavelength of 532 nm with laser fluences spanning 0.06–0.5 J/cm². We generated soot in an ethylene/air diffusion flame, introduced it into the vacuum system with an aerodynamic lens, heated it using a pulsed laser with a spatially homogeneous and temporally smooth laser profile, and recorded LII temporal profiles at 685 nm. At low laser fluences LII signal decay rates are slow, and LII signals persist beyond the residence time of the soot particles in the detection region. At these fluences, the temporal maximum of the LII signal increases nearly linearly with increasing laser fluence until reaching a plateau at ∼0.18 J/cm². At higher fluences, the LII signal maximum is independent of laser fluence within experimental uncertainty. At these fluences, the LII signal decays rapidly during the laser pulse. The fluence dependence of the vacuum LII signal is qualitatively similar to that observed under similar laser conditions in an atmospheric flame but requires higher fluences (by ∼0.03 J/cm²) for initiation. These data demonstrate the feasibility of recording vacuum LII temporal profiles of flame-generated soot under well-characterized conditions for model validation.     

Energy balance of pulsed laser ablation: thermal model revised

We present the results of modeling of nanosecond laser ablation of graphite, niobium, YBa₂Cu₃O₇ superconductor, and silicon performed on the basis of a modified thermal model which includes a thorough calculation of the solid–melt interface. The model is based on experimental data on mass removal and takes into account plasma absorption. The numerical results of the laser energy balance are presented over a wide range of laser fluences. The probable critical temperatures for the materials studied have been estimated on the basis of the modeling. PACS 52.38.Mf; 79.20.Ds     

Finite element simulation of pulsed laser ablation of titanium carbide

In the present paper, a 2D finite element model based on the heat-conduction equation and on the Hertz-Knudsen equation for vaporization was developed and used to simulate the ablation of TiC by Nd:YAG and KrF pulsed laser radiation. The calculations were performed for fluences of 8 and 10 J/cm², which according to experimental results obtained previously, correspond to large increases of the ablation rate. The calculated maximum surface temperature of the target for both lasers is higher than the estimated value of TiC critical temperature, corroborating the hypothesis that the increase of the ablation rate is explained by the explosive boiling mechanism.