西藏扎什伦布寺壁画的科学研究

壁画是寺院建筑的重要装饰元素,也是藏传佛教艺术的重要组成部分。扎什伦布寺始建于明正统12年（公元1447年）,作为后藏最大的寺院,寺内保存了大量精美壁画,这些壁画对研究藏传佛教及佛教艺术具有重要意义。扎什伦布寺自建寺起一直为传播佛教文化服务,经历了频繁的大规模修建。为了解扎什伦布寺壁画的制作材料与工艺,为今后壁画的保护及修复提供重要的参考及科学支撑,选取寺内强巴佛殿四层北壁、吉康扎仓南殿西侧的典型壁画,共采集8个样品。采用超景深三维视频显微镜观察壁画的制作结构,显微激光拉曼光谱仪对有机与无机颜料的成分信息进行表征,偏光显微镜根据晶体的光学信息鉴别拉曼光谱相似的颜料颗粒,X射线衍射仪用于测定地仗成分,扫描电镜/能谱仪则对微观数据进行确认和补充。通过分析研究,壁画由地仗层、准备层、颜料层构成。颜料包括矿物及人工合成颜料,其中红色颜料为朱砂与颜料红14,绿色颜料为块铜矾、酞菁绿,黑色颜料为碳黑,黄色颜料为雌黄,蓝色颜料为合成群青。颜料红14与酞菁绿为有机合成颜料,合成群青则为无机合成颜料。块铜矾作为矿物颜料,在欧洲曾用于架上画、壁画、手稿等艺术作品中,但在国内还未曾发现其使用历史,这一发现扩展了对绿色颜料的认识。壁画的地仗层依据藏式壁画制作传统使用了阿嘎土,准备层则由黄土制备。研究结果表明,壁画制作时以阿嘎土打底,刷一层黄土找平壁面,以胶调和颜料绘制于黄土层之上。壁画除了使用一些常见的传统藏式壁画材料,还发现了一些近代人工合成材料,说明扎什伦布寺强巴佛殿四层北壁及吉康扎仓南殿西侧壁画曾经历过重绘或补绘。该研究结果不仅弥补了扎什伦布寺壁画的研究空缺,也为扎什伦布寺修缮历史的补充及完善提供了重要证据。     

光导纤维反射光谱技术在彩绘文物颜料无损分析鉴定中的应用

文物颜料成分分析鉴定是文物材质分析和文物保护工作的重要内容。利用自行研制的光导纤维反射光谱仪对唐代彩绘陶器和壁画上的颜料成分进行了无损分析鉴定,通过比较彩绘文物颜料和标准颜料的反射光谱曲线的形状以及特征峰或一阶导数峰来完成颜料的鉴定工作。光导纤维反射光谱法鉴定出西安市唐代彩绘文物1#样品墓葬壁画上的深红色颜料是纯度较高的土红;2#样品陶器残片上的绿色颜料为石绿;3#样品陶缸残片上的橙红色和朱红色颜料分别是由大量铅丹和微量土红及大量朱砂和微量土红的混合物所组成。采用X射线荧光分析法进行验证,实验结果表明光导纤维反射光谱技术鉴定彩绘文物颜料成分的结果是准确、可靠的,提供了一种文物颜料无损分析的简捷方法。     

壁画制作工艺和材料光谱分析——以北京延庆花盆关帝庙壁画为例

光谱学是利用光与物质的相互作用,展示物质微观结构,提供不同化学分析方式,从而实现对物质的定量和定性分析。壁画制作工艺分析中运用了大量的光谱分析技术,该研究以北京延庆花盆关帝庙为例,通过光谱及其他技术分析壁画的制作材料和工艺。花盆关帝庙位于北京延庆区花盆村,始建于清雍正四年(1726年),是当时祭祀的重要场所,也是延庆地区关帝庙的典型代表之一。运用X射线衍射、拉曼光谱和激光粒度分析仪等一系列光谱技术发现关帝庙壁画的地仗层成分为石英、方解石和钠长石,白粉层成分为石膏,颜料层中红色颜料为铁红、铅丹和朱砂,蓝色颜色为蓝铜矿,黄色颜色为铬黄,黑色颜色为炭黑,白色颜料为石膏,绿色颜色为巴黎绿、绿土和铬绿。沥粉贴金工艺的胶结物为熟桐油和松香树脂,金箔采用含金量86.1%的赤金。拉曼光谱不仅可以辨析壁画颜料,还能通过颜料历史研究佐证和丰富壁画修复历史信息。结合文物光谱分析数据与文献资料,充分挖掘文物背后的信息,对研究和保护古代壁画有着重要意义。通过花盆关帝庙壁画同面墙不同位置的壁画地仗层制作工艺的差异,说明壁画制作材料和工艺受位置影响。期待日后研究者通过研究壁画制作材料和工艺差异,发现符合规制的典型壁...     

基于可见光谱的古代壁画颜料无损鉴别方法

矿物颜料是古代壁画显色的物质基础,其可见光谱反映自身物质和物理属性。不同颜料对可见光吸收特性的差异导致光谱曲线形状不同,同一种颜料因粒径等级差异引起光谱曲线幅值的规律性变化。依据矿物颜料上述特性,提出一种基于可见光谱的古代壁画颜料无损鉴别方法,通过光谱归一化方法实现不同粒径等级的同一颜料光谱曲线叠合,去除颜料粒径等级对光谱曲线幅值变化的影响,然后提取表征光谱曲线在各波段增减性和凹凸性的一阶与二阶导数特征,与光谱曲线组合得到颜料物质属性鉴别的光谱组合特征空间,以光谱角和欧式距离为基础构建评价指标,计算待鉴别颜料与数据库参考样本在光谱特征空间中的匹配误差(ME),实现颜料物质属性的鉴别。通过构建矿物颜料平均粒径大小和光谱反射率均值之间关系函数,实现颜料平均粒径大小的鉴别。基于构建的古代壁画常用颜料光谱数据库,以莫高窟壁画为对象,通过非接触式原位无损测量方法测量获得壁画颜料的可见光谱数据,对本文方法进行了验证,并以石绿和青金石颜料的鉴别结果为例,对古代壁画颜料使用技法、不同朝代颜料使用的差异性及原因进行了探讨。该方法将为更加全面深入研究和保护古代壁画提供有效的理论与方法支撑。     

可见光谱法无损识别壁画文物矿物质颜料的研究

针对取样分析技术破坏壁画文物完整性问题,提出非接触式可见光谱法原位无损识别壁画文物矿物质颜料物质成分和粒径的方法。构建非接触式获取平台原位无损采集壁画文物表面可见光谱;通过调研和实测数据分析,制备了壁画矿物质颜料可见光谱数据库。分析数据库中的光谱数据发现：同种化学成分的颜料具有相同的吸收特性,表现为光谱曲线峰值位置和几何轮廓的相似性;在不同粒径下又呈现出不同的散射特性,表现为光谱曲线幅度的差异性。为此,构建了壁画文物矿物质颜料物质成分和粒径的可见光谱法无损识别流程和识别方法,即提取光谱曲线几何轮廓特征构建表征空间实现了颜料物质成分的识别;在此基础上,提出了矿物质颜料需进行物理特征识别的理念,并建立了光谱曲线幅度积分值与颜料平均粒径间的拟合关系,实现颜料粒径识别。以敦煌莫高窟壁画为例验证了该方法的可行性。     

开平碉楼灰雕和壁画颜料碎片原材料的拉曼光谱分析

本文采用显微激光拉曼光谱分析了开平碉楼灰雕和壁画黄色颜料碎片的原材料组成,通过分析发现:灰雕的主要成分是稻草杆(作为骨架材料),石灰(CaCO3),沙(石英SiO2)以及黄色颜料类胡萝卜素.壁画黄色颜料碎片的成分则是针铁矿(α-FeOOH)和CaSO4.这也说明开平碉楼在选材上,即使是在同一栋楼内,相同颜色的颜料使用的...     

新疆库木吐喇石窟壁画铅颜料的拉曼光谱分析

利用显微镜、扫描电镜和激光拉曼光谱技术对库木吐喇石窟壁画铅颜料进行分析,结果显示棕黑色颜料是二氧化铅和铅丹,橘红色和棕红色颜料是铅丹。采用拉曼光谱检测铅颜料,选择恰当的激光波长和检测功率是获取准确分析结果的关键,较长的激光波长和低的功率能确保铅颜料稳定。研究还发现了石窟壁画颜料铅丹的变色现象。     

古壁画、陶彩颜料的拉曼光谱分析

本文利用拉曼光谱对河南班村遗址出土的仰韶彩陶陶彩以及河北磁县湾漳东魏北齐大型壁画墓中的壁画颜料进行了分析,成功的测定出陶彩及壁画颜料的成分。这一研究工作表明,拉曼光谱作为现代技术非常适合于易损和不允许取样的珍贵艺术品颜料的无损分析     

天水仙人崖石窟壁画颜料层原位-无损分析研究

壁画是我国极为重要的文化遗产类型,具有极高的历史价值、艺术价值、科学价值、文化价值和社会价值。颜料层作为壁画的核心价值所在,包含古代历史文化、宗教信仰、政治经济、科学技术等多方面的信息内涵。常规的颜料层分析方法有原位无损和微损取样两种,取样分析方法虽能满足这类珍贵、脆弱文物的研究,但获取样品数量有限且会对本体造成不可逆转的损伤。综合运用数字成像以及光谱等分析技术对天水仙人崖石窟壁画颜料层进行工艺与制作材料研究。结果显示,正射影像图能够真实记录壁画当前纹理信息,色度仪可以量化表征壁画颜料的颜色,红紫外摄影可以提取可见光下不易探查的壁画绘制线稿、修复痕迹等隐含信息,高倍数码显微镜可观察壁画表面的微观形态及破损处的层次信息,便携式X射线荧光光谱仪可检测出颜料中的元素由此判断主要显色元素,高光谱采集所得数据与标准图谱比较后能够准确判定颜料的矿物种类。因此,多种原位无损分析方法的联合运用,可以减少对文物的直接干预,亦可达到对壁画颜料层认知的目的。这些非接触式的无损检测方法,可精细化研究壁画颜料层的色彩、物理、化学属性等内容,是壁画现场分析的重要手段,可在石窟寺、寺观殿堂、墓葬壁画的研究上进行推广,发挥其应有之用。     

受干扰光谱信息中矿物颜料粒径信息的获取

矿物颜料的准确配色是实现文物壁画高品质修复,颜色高保真还原的关键技术。矿物颜料颗粒的粒径大小是影响矿物颜料颜色信息和光谱反射率信息的一个重要因素。准确获取壁画表面的矿物颜料光谱反射率信息,是实现颜料颗粒粒径信息识别的有效途径。但是,由于壁画表面矿物颜料部分采样点的光谱信息受到了干扰,无法与不同粒径的矿物颜料的光谱数据库准确匹配,因此也无法从采集的光谱信息中获取有效的粒径信息。针对受干扰的颜料光谱信息,提出利用比值导数法对其进行处理。把光谱信息从光谱反射率空间转换到比值导数光谱空间进行匹配,降低光谱中的干扰信息,增强矿物颜料颗粒本身的光谱特征信息。以壁画中常用的不同粒径的石青和石绿矿物颜料为实验对象,制成色块样本,以基底和白色颜料为主要影响因素,对文中提出的方法进行测试。光谱角度量的结果和光谱曲线图的匹配结果显示,在比值导数光谱空间,获得了满意的光谱匹配精度。验证了文中提出的分析方法可以解决实验中受干扰颜料光谱匹配不准确而无法获得粒径信息的问题,能够为壁画修复过程中矿物颜料的配色提供准确的粒径信息参考。     

Pigment study by Raman microscopy of 23 paintings by the Portuguese artist Henrique Pousão (1859–1884)

Twenty‐three paintings by Henrique Pousão—a 19th century Portuguese painter—belonging to the collection of Museu Nacional Soares dos Reis, Porto, Portugal, were analysed by Raman microscopy. The fine focus of a 100× objective allowed the visualisation and individual identification of small grains. As a result, thirty‐seven compounds, namely, anatase, barium white, basic lead sulfate, brochantite, cadmium red, cadmium yellow, calcium carbonate, carbon‐based black, celadonite, chrome green, chrome orange, chrome yellow, cobalt blue, cochineal lake, copper sulfide, emerald green, iron(III) oxyhydroxide, iron(III) oxide, kaolinite, lead antimonate yellow, lead carbonate, lead white, lead sulfate, madder lake, malachite, Prussian blue, quartz, realgar/pararealgar, red lead, rutile, Scheele's green, strontium yellow, ultramarine blue, vermilion, viridian, zinc white and zinc yellow, were identified. Not all these compounds are pigments; some are extenders, others trace components and others probably products of reactions between pigments. Special attention was given to the Raman characterisation of celadonite, chrome orange, basic lead sulfate and lead antimonate yellow. Complementary techniques were used to confirm the identities of certain pigments and to characterise reference samples. Pousão, whose work has not previously been studied spectroscopically, was found to have used a remarkably wide range of pigments over his painting periods, without showing significant preference for any particular set of pigments. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Testing of Raman spectroscopy as a non‐invasive tool for the investigation of glass‐protected pastels

Five French pastels and a sanguine drawing dating from the 17th to the 20th century were studied by Raman spectroscopy. Different operative conditions were used: the pastels were investigated through their protective glass, and the results obtained were compared with those obtained after removing the glass and after sampling a micrometric particle of pigment. Different parameters (wavelengths, powers of excitation and objectives) were tested in order to assess the optimal procedure of analysis for this fragile work of art. The results obtained for black (carbons), yellow (chrome/cobalt yellow), red (lead oxide, vermillion, orpiment), brown (red lead and chrome yellow), blue (Prussian blue, lapis lazuli/ultramarine), green (mixture of above blue and yellow pigments) and white (calcite, lead white, anatase) pigments are presented and the consistency of the pigments' period of use with the dating proposed for each pastel is evaluated. In one of the pastels, the blackening of the carnation colour made of an unstable mixture of lead white, red lead and vermilion was studied. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Non‐destructive identification of pigments printed on six Imperial China Engraved Coiling Dragon stamps

Raman spectroscopy was employed to investigate six Imperial China Engraved Coiling Dragon stamps non‐destructively. The results have shown that (1) the main colors (yellow, green, scarlet, brown, vermilion, and blue) on the six stamps were all prepared from inorganic pigments, including chrome yellow, chrome orange, Prussian blue, red lead, magnesium sulfate hydrate, and ultramarine blue. (2) Raman spectrometer has been allowed for successfully identifying the molecular structure of the pigments printed on the six examined stamps, suggesting that such a dual analytical approach could satisfy the need for pigment identification on stamps. (3) The finding that certain pigments were intentionally mixed to produce a whole different hue or color, the mechanism of which could be explained by theories of chromatology and metamerism, also provides new insight into the future conservation, authentication, and restoration of the early printings. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Identification of Pigments in Colored Layers of a Painting by Raman Spectroscopy

Using the method of Raman spectroscopy the pigment composition is investigated of, and the brushwork technique used in, the original layer of a 19th century painting is established. It is an overdoor worked, presumably, by Antoine Jean-Etienne Faivre. It is established that the artist used the following pigments: cinnabar and dyes on the basis of goethite and hematite (for red, yellow–orange, and brown shades), ultramarine and Prussian blue (for blue shades), and Emerald green and a mixture of blue and yellow shades (to obtain a green color). It is determined that white lead was used a primer.     

Pigments and enamelling/gilding technology of Mamluk mosque lamps and bottle

On‐site Raman spectroscopy is used to investigate four mosque lamps and a bottle dating back to the 13–14th centuries (Syria and/or Egypt, Mamluk period) from the Department of Islamic Art, Musée du Louvre, Paris. The pigments and the enamelled glass matrix have been identified in order to discuss their technology. A comparison is made with one masterpiece from the 19th century made by Brocard. The results obtained for blue (lapis lazuli or Co‐coloured glass), yellow (Naples yellows or zinc/chrome yellow), green (mixture of the aforementioned blue and yellow pigments or lead chromate for restorated foot) red (hematite), white (cassiterite or arsenate) and pink (hematite and cassiterite) pigments are presented. The consistency of the pigments period of use/technology with the datation proposed for each artefact is evaluated. For one lamp, the detection of quartz in some places of the hematite‐rich glassy layer supporting the gold is related to the search of a physical bonding with the artefact body. Carbon residues in such enamel are consistent with the use of an organic medium to place the enamel powder before the firing. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Raman Characterization of Pigments in Painted Beams and a Wall Painting Discovered in the San Francisco Church in Santiago,Chile

A material characterization of two artworks discovered in the San Francisco Church, Santiago, Chile, was performed using micro-Raman spectroscopy. Structural painted beams and a wall painting that belong to the same time period, between the end of the 17th and 19th centuries, were analyzed. The cross-section samples of both artworks were characterized and animal protein was identified in the ground layer in both cases. The supporting material of the beams was identified as cypress wood, and a rag paper layer was used as a base for the paint layer, which is composed mainly of a white ground layer on which the color was subsequently added; the yellow pigments are orpiment and chrome yellow; the green color probably arises from a mixture of orpiment, red lead, ultramarine blue, and calcite. A complete analysis of the materials using complementary techniques such as microchemistry and optical microscopy indicates that the mural was painted using a mixed technique and that organic and inorganic pigments were used. The identification of the synthetic pigment ultramarine blue in some blue areas of the wall revealed a modification of the wall painting in the 19th century; dark blue areas resulted from a mixture of indigo, palygorskite, and lazurite.     

An example of the complementarity of laser‐induced breakdown spectroscopy and Raman microscopy for wall painting pigments analysis

Laser‐induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) and Raman microscopy were used for the identification of pigments in wall painting. Raman spectroscopy, which provides the molecular ‘fingerprint’ of the compound, is nowadays widely used by the archaeometry community, especially for pigment analysis. LIBS, which provides the elementary composition of samples, is a rapid noncontact method, enabling layer‐by‐layer analysis through a precise laser ablation of the sample. This work deals with the behavior of pigments after a LIBS analysis, by trying to identify the compounds before and after the laser shot. Six commercial pigments prepared with the fresco technique were investigated: ultramarine blue, red lead, charcoal, a yellow and a red ochre, and a green earth. Raman spectra, acquired on the sample surface and in the crater induced by LIBS analysis, were compared. The results show that these pigments are well recognized after a LIBS measurement. The analysis of green earth illustrates that the combination of these two techniques gives complete information from a sample. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A multi-analytical approach for the study of the pigments used in the wall paintings from a building complex on the Caelian Hill (Rome)

In the present study, shards from Roman wall paintings (from the end of the first century to the fourth century A.D.) decorating the domus below the Basilica of SS. John and Paul on the Caelian Hill (Rome), were analyzed in order to identify the pigments used. The analytical techniques employed for the characterization of the pigments were the scanning electron microscope coupled with an energy dispersive spectrometer (SEM-EDS) and infrared spectroscopy (ATR and micro ATR). While SEM-EDS allowed to perform a qualitative analysis of the material, by FT-IR chemical species have been identified. The pigments identified were those mentioned in the literature for the Imperial Roman fresco painting: different types of ochre (yellow and red), mixtures containing lead, green earths and precious pigments such as cinnabar and Egyptian blue. They were often used as mixtures and the use of the most valuable pigments (cinnabar and Egyptian blue) were found in the most ancient rooms.     

Spectroscopic investigation of modern pigments on purportedly medieval miniatures by the ‘Spanish Forger’

Five miniatures by the so‐called ‘Spanish Forger’ were acquired by the Victoria and Albert Museum in 2008. Believed to be authentic medieval miniatures until the mid‐twentieth century, they are now considered to have been painted around the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century. To investigate this attribution and to gather detailed knowledge about the materials used by the artist, a comprehensive pigment analysis by Raman microscopy and X‐ray fluorescence was carried out. Although traditional materials such as vermilion, carbon black, red lead, lead white and indigo were identified, many others (chrome yellow, Scheele's green, emerald green and ultramarine blue) are modern and synthetic pigments, a result which provides a firm scientific basis for stating that the miniatures are forgeries. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

故宫奉先殿清初彩画颜料成分分析

故宫奉先殿是明清两代皇帝祭祀祖先的家庙,地位仅次于太庙。奉先殿始建于明成祖时期,现存建筑主要建于康熙时期,其上保留了为数不多的清初彩画,是研究清初彩画的珍贵实物。利用显微观察、扫描电子显微镜能谱和激光拉曼光谱分析,对取自奉先殿的彩画颜料进行分析鉴定。结果表明,奉先殿彩画中部分红色和蓝色颜料层存在分层现象,表层颜色鲜艳明亮,中层和下层颜色偏浅,每层所用颜料配方不同。红色颜料有朱砂、铅丹和铁红,绿色颜料均为氯铜矿,蓝色颜料均为石青,用铅白打底。浅色颜料由主显色矿物颜料加入以铅白为主的白色颜料混合调制而成。其中浅红色由铅丹与铅白调和而成,浅绿色由氯铜矿与铅白调和而成。浅蓝色颜料中未发现铅白,但含有大量Al元素和Si元素,推测含有高岭土。浅蓝色颜料有可能是由石青与高岭土调制而成。奉先殿彩画中未发现清晚彩画常用的合成群青、巴黎绿等颜料,反映出奉先殿彩画的绘制年代很有可能就是档案记载的康熙年间,之后未有大修。高岭土作为白色颜料调配浅色颜料在彩画制作中比较少见,奉先殿彩画中高岭土的发现丰富了清代早期彩画颜料制作的资料,具有一定的学术意义。