Synthesis, electrochemistry and metal binding properties of monosubstituted ferrocenoyl peptides with thioether-containing sidechains

Ferrocenoyl peptides incorporating thioether functionality respond more strongly to mercury(II) than to other heavy metal ions in solution. Compounds reported previously in this context are all 1,1′-disubstituted, and all include two or more sulfur-containing amino acids. To test whether two thioether groups are required for effective mercury binding by these systems, we have prepared a series of singly-substituted ferrocenoyl peptides from ferrocenecarboxylic acid and l-methionine, S-methyl-l-cysteine or S-trityl-l-cysteine, and tested them as electrochemical probes for mercury(II). Nine ferrocenoyl peptides have been synthesised using a Boc-protecting group strategy and HBTU-mediated peptide coupling. The electrochemical properties of these compounds have been determined using cyclic voltammetry, and all show fully reversible one electron oxidation steps. Forward sweep half wave peaks (E_F), reverse sweep half wave peaks (E_R), peak separations (ΔE_P) and half wave potentials (E_1/2) are reported. Changes in the potential of the iron(II)/iron(III) redox couple of the ferrocene core have been used to quantify heavy metal-peptide interactions, revealing that these monotopic systems also respond more strongly to mercury(II) than to zinc(II), cadmium(II), silver(I) and lead(II). NMR experiments to characterise the peptide-mercury interaction implicate the thioether sulfur as the site of mercury binding and indicate 1:1 stoichiometry. The crystal structure of ferrocenoyl-S-methyl-l-cysteine methyl ester is also reported. The greater responsiveness of these systems to mercury(II) makes them interesting leads for the development of biologically inspired sensors for this toxic heavy metal.     

Mercury binding by ferrocenoyl peptides with sulfur-containing side chains: Electrochemical, spectroscopic and structural studies

Ferrocenoyl peptides incorporating amino acids derived from either l-methionine, l-cysteine or dl-homocysteine have been synthesised and investigated as agents for heavy metal binding and detection. Heavy metal-peptide interactions have been characterised using cyclic voltammetry to follow changes in the potential of the Fe(II)/Fe(III) redox couple, revealing that these systems interact with mercury(II) ions more strongly than with other thiophilic heavy metals such as cadmium(II), silver(I) and lead(II). Proton NMR experiments have demonstrated 1:1 peptide:mercury binding and enabled quantitative characterisation of this binding interaction. Crystal structures for two of these ferrocenoyl peptide derivatives have been elucidated, revealing that these compounds adopt a P-1,3′ open solid state conformation in the absence of mercury; this arrangement precludes intramolecular hydrogen bonding between chains, while extensive intermolecular hydrogen bonding is evident. The particular affinity of these systems for mercury(II) opens the possibility of incorporating them in new, biologically inspired sensors for detecting this toxic pollutant.     

Enzymatic C-terminal amidation of amino acids and peptides

Herein, we describe two versatile and high yielding enzymatic approaches for the conversion of semi-protected amino acid and peptidyl C-terminal α-carboxylic acids into their corresponding amides. In the first approach, the lipase Candida antarctica lipase-B (Cal-B), and in the second approach, the protease Subtilisin A, are used, respectively. We found that by using the ammonium salt of the α-carboxylic acid instead of separate ammonia sources, the enzymatic amidation reactions proceeded much faster without side reactions and gave near to quantitative yields of products.     

The synthesis and structural characterization of N-ortho-ferrocenyl benzoyl amino acid esters. The X-ray crystal structure of N-{ortho-(ferrocenyl)benzoyl}-l-phenylalanine ethyl ester

A series of N-ortho-ferrocenyl benzoyl amino acid ethyl esters 3-9 have been prepared by coupling ortho-ferrocenyl benzoic acid 2 to the amino acid ethyl esters of glycine, l-alanine, l-leucine, l-phenylalanine, β-alanine, 4-aminobutyric acid and (±)-2-aminobutyric acid using the conventional 1,3-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide, 1-hydroxybenzotriazole protocol. The compounds were fully characterized by a range of NMR spectroscopic techniques and by mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS, ESI-MS). The X-ray crystal structure of the l-phenylalanine derivative 6 has been determined.     

Synthesis and structural characterization of N-para-ferrocenyl benzoyl amino acid ethyl esters and the X-ray crystal structures of the glycyl and (±)-2-aminobutyric acid derivative Fc-C6H4CONHCH(C2H5)CO2Et

A series of N-para-ferrocenyl benzoyl amino acid ethyl esters 1-8 have been prepared by coupling para-ferrocenyl benzoic acid with the amino acid esters using the conventional 1,3-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCC), 1-hydroxybenzotriazole (HOBt) protocol. The amino acids employed in the synthesis were glycine, l-alanine, l-leucine, l-phenylalanine, β-alanine, 4-aminobutyric acid, (±)-2-aminobutyric acid and 2-aminoisobutyric acid. The compounds were fully characterized by a range of spectroscopic techniques such as NMR and mass spectrometry. In addition the X-ray crystal structures of the glycyl 1 and (±)-2-aminobutyrate 7 derivatives have been determined. Analysis of relevant fragments in crystal structures on the Cambridge Structural Database indicates a relative paucity of common fragments such as the α-aminobutyrate group in comparison to the glycyl moiety.     

Micellar-mediated shifts of ionization constants of amino acids and peptides

The acid-base dissociation constants, K_a, of amino acids and small peptides were determined in both aqueous and micellar solutions of sodium dodecyl sulfate and cetyltrimethylammonium bromide by potentiometric and chromatographic means. The observed differences in pK_a values between micellar media and aqueous solutions ranged between 0.23 and 2.21 units. The micellar-mediated pK_a shifts can be attributed to different solute-micelle interactions, mainly hydrophobic and electrostatic forces. The implications of the change in acid-base behavior on separation selectivity in micellar liquid chromatography and micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatography are discussed.     

Control of chirality-organized structures of ferrocene-dipeptide bioconjugates

A variety of ferrocene-dipeptide bioconjugates have been designed to induce chirality-organized structures in both solid and solution states. The ferrocene serves as a reliable organometallic scaffold for the construction of protein secondary structures via intramolecular hydrogen bonding, here the attached dipeptide strands are regulated within the appropriate dimensions. The configuration and sequence of the amino acids play an important role in the construction of the chirality-organized bio-inspired systems under controlled hydrogen bonding.     

Synthesis, structural characterisation and biological activity of novel N-(ferrocenylmethyl)benzene-carboxamide derivatives

A series of N-(ferrocenylmethyl)benzene-carboxamide derivatives (4a-f) have been synthesised by coupling ferrocenylmethyl amine 3 with benzoic acid and various substituted fluorobenzoic acids using the standard 1,3-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCC), 1-hydroxybenzotriazole (HOBt) protocol. All compounds were fully characterised using a combination of ¹H NMR, ¹³C NMR, ¹⁹F NMR, DEPT-135, ¹H-¹H COSY and ¹H-¹³C COSY (HMQC) spectroscopy and electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). The compounds 4a, 4d, 4e and 4f exhibited cytotoxic effects on the MDA-MB-435-S-F breast cancer cell line. Single crystal X-ray crystallographic data for 4d is also presented.     

The synthesis and structural characterization of N-para-ferrocenyl benzoyl dipeptide esters: The X-ray crystal structure of N-{para-(ferrocenyl)benzoyl}-l-alanine-glycine ethyl ester

A series ofN-para-ferrocenyl benzoyl dipeptide esters 2-5 were prepared by coupling para-ferrocenyl benzoic acid (1) to the dipeptide ethyl esters using the conventional 1,3-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCC), 1-hydroxybenzotriazole (HOBt) protocol. The dipeptides employed in the synthesis were Ala-Gly(OEt) (2), Ala-Ala(OEt) (3), Ala-Leu(OEt) (4) and Ala-Phe(OEt) (5). The compounds were fully characterized by a range of NMR spectroscopic techniques, electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) and tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). In addition the X-ray crystal structure of the l-alanine-glycine derivative 2 has been determined.     

Synthesis and characterization of chiral iron carbonyl complexes from imine ligands with carbohydrates and amino acids as substituents

Imine ligands derived from 6-amino-6-desoxy-1,2,3-O-trimethyl--d-glucopyranose or from various amino acid esters react with Fe₂(CO)₉ to give chiral iron carbonyl complexes. Derivatives produced from benzaldehyde react via a C–H activation reaction in ortho-position with respect to the exocyclic imine substituent followed by an intramolecular hydrogen transfer reaction of the activated hydrogen towards the former imine carbon atom. The molecular structure of the diiron hexacarbonyl complexes of benzylideneamino-l-phenylalanine ethyl ester and benzylideneamino-l-methionine methyl ester were characterized by means of X-ray structure determinations. Imines produced from cinnamaldehyde upon reaction with Fe₂(CO)₉ produce mononuclear iron tricarbonyl complexes with the imine ligand being coordinated in a η⁴-fashion.     

Synthesis, structural characterization and electrochemical study of 1,1′-ferrocenylene labeled amino acids

Unsymmetrical 1,1′-disubstituted ferrocenes bearing an amino acid moiety and a conjugated electron density controlling substituent were synthesized conveniently starting from 1,1′-ferrocenedicarbaldehyde. The novel ferrocene amino acid derivatives were completely characterized from their MS, ¹H NMR and ¹³C NMR spectra. Their electrochemical behavior was studied by cyclic voltammetry. Their formal redox potentials E_f were slightly influenced by the nature of the amino acid and mainly by the kind of the ethenyl substituent. Furthermore all the (Z)-isomers exhibited a slight anodic shift compared with the corresponding (E)-isomers.     

Synthesis, structural characterization, in vitro anti-proliferative effect and cell cycle analysis of N-(ferrocenyl)benzoyl dipeptide esters

N-ortho, meta and para-(ferrocenyl)benzoyl dipeptide esters 2-10 were prepared by coupling ferrocenyl benzoic acids 1(ortho, meta and para) to the dipeptide ethyl esters GlyAbu(OEt) 2-4, GlyNva(OEt) 5-7 and GlyNle(OEt) 8-10 in the presence of N-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-N′-ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride and 1-hydroxybenzotriazole. The compounds were fully characterized by a range of NMR spectroscopic techniques, mass spectrometry and cyclic voltammetry. The cytotoxicity of 3, 6 and 9 versus H1299 lung cancer cells were 10.5 μM, 19.1 μM and 18.9 μM, respectively, whereas N-{meta-(ferrocenyl)-benzoyl}-glycine-l-alanine ethyl ester 11 and N-{para-(ferrocenyl)-benzoyl}-glycine-l-alanine ethyl ester 12 gave IC₅₀ values of 4.0 and 6.6 μM, respectively. Therefore, an increase in alkyl chain length of the second amino acid also increases the IC₅₀ values. Cell cycle analysis of N-{ortho-(ferrocenyl)-benzoyl}-glycine-l-alanine ethyl ester 13 suggests a block in the G2/M phase of the cell cycle.     

Synthesis and characterization of uranium (IV) complexes with various amino acids

Complexes of uranium in its IV oxidation state, using cysteine, glycine, serine and aspartic acid as ligands, have been synthesized. Semi-microanalysis of the complexes indicate 1:1 metal to ligand ratio for all the synthesized complexes. Infrared spectra of solid complexes have been employed to establish the groups, coordinated to the metal ion. Effective magnetic moment of the complexes were also estimated.     

Purification of amino acids and small peptides with hollow fibers

Permeation through hollow fibers made of a perfluorinated ionomer membrane of the Nafion type is shown to be a possible way to separate amino acids and small peptides. The fiber has a surface area to volume ratio of 56 cm² cm^?3. Twenty-six different amino acids and small peptides with up to six amino acid units were used for permeation studies. The results show that the bulk pH is the essential parameter acting on the permeation rates and diffusion coefficients through the tubing wall. The cationic forms of the solutes, at a pH lower than their isoelectric points, were highly retained by the cation-exchange membrane. The anionic forms of the solutes, at a pH higher than the isoelectric point, were less retained. The zwitterionic and non-ionic forms had the highest permeation rates, reaching 2.2 × 10^?3 s^?1. The effect of methanol addition was studied. The permeation rates increased, but the selectivity decreased     

Effect of some amino acids and peptides on silicic acid polymerization

The polymerization of silicic acid in aqueous solutions at different pH was followed by the colorimetric molybdosilicate method. The role of four amino acids (serine, lysine, proline and aspartic acid) and the corresponding homopeptides was studied. All four amino acids behave the same way and favor the condensation of silicic acid. Peptides exhibit a stronger catalytic effect than amino acids but they appear to behave in very different ways depending on the nature of side-groups and pH. Poly-lysine and poly-proline for instance lead to the precipitation of solid phases containing both silica and peptides. The role of these biomolecules on the polymerization of silicic acid is discussed in terms of electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bonds and solubility.     

Click chemistry inspired synthesis of ferrocene amino acids and other derivatives

This work reports the synthesis of a wide range of ferrocenyl-amino acids and other derivatives in excellent yield. Diverse amino acid containing azides were synthesized and ligated to ferrocene employing click reaction to access ferrocenyl amino acids. Chiral alcohols, esters, diols, amines containing azido group were tagged to ferrocene via click reaction to generate ferrocene derived chiral derivatives. A novel strategy for direct incorporation of ferrocene into a peptide and a new route to 1, 1′disubstituted ferrocene amino acid derivative are reported.     

Interaction of dipropyltin(IV) with amino acids,peptides, dicarboxylic acids and DNA constituents

Interaction of dipropyltin(IV) with selected amino acids, peptides, dicarboxylic acids or DNA constituents was investigated using potentiometric techniques. Amino acids form 1?:?1 and 1?:?2 complexes and, in some cases, protonated complexes. The amino acid is bound to dipropyltin(IV) by the amino and carboxylate groups. Serine is complexed to dipropyltin(IV) with ionization of the alcoholic group. A relationship exists between the acid dissociation constant of the amino acids and the formation constants of the corresponding complexes. Dicarboxylic acids form both 1?:?1 and 1?:?2 complexes. Diacids forming five- and six-membered chelate rings are the most stable. Peptides form complexes with stoichiometric coefficients 111(MLH), 110(ML) and 11-1(MLH_?1)(tin: peptide: H⁺). The mode of coordination is discussed based on existing data and previous investigations. DNA constituents inosine, adenosine, uracil, uridine, and thymine form 1?:?1 and 1?:?2 complexes and the binding sites are assigned. Inosine 5′-monophosphate, guanosine 5′-monophosphate, adenosine 5′-monophosphate and adenine form protonated species in addition to 1?:?1 and 1?:?2 complexes. The protonation sites and tin-binding sites were elucidated. Cytosine and cytidine do not form complexes with dipropyltin(IV) due to low basicity of the donor sites. The stepwise formation constants of the complexes formed in solution were calculated using the non-linear least-square program MINIQUAD-75. The concentration distribution of the various complex species was evaluated as a function of pH.     

Applications of hydrophilic interaction chromatography to amino acids,peptides, and proteins

This review summarizes the recent advances in the analysis of amino acids, peptides, and proteins using hydrophilic interaction chromatography. Various reports demonstrate the successful analysis of amino acids under such conditions. However, a baseline resolution of the 20 natural amino acids has not yet been published and for this reason, there is often a need to use mass spectrometry for detection to further improve selectivity. Hydrophilic interaction chromatography is also recognized as a powerful technique for peptide analysis, and there are a lot of papers showing its applicability for proteomic applications (peptide mapping). It is expected that its use for peptide mapping will continue to grow in the future, particularly because this analytical strategy can be combined with reversed‐phase liquid chromatography, in a two‐dimensional setup, to reach very high resolving power. Finally, the interest in hydrophilic interaction chromatography for intact proteins analysis is less evident due to possible solubility issues and a lack of suitable hydrophilic interaction chromatography stationary phases. To date, it has been successfully employed only for the characterization of membrane proteins, histones, and the separation of glycosylated isoforms of an intact glycoprotein. From our point of view, the number of hydrophilic interaction chromatography columns compatible with intact proteins (higher upper temperature limit, large pore size, etc.) is still too limited.     

Synthesis of the unnatural amino acid N-N-(ferrocene-1-acetyl)-l-lysine: A novel organometallic nuclease

The synthesis of a new unnatural amino acid, N^α-N^ε-(ferrocene-1-acetyl)-l-lysine, was achieved by coupling a ferroceneacetic acid molecule onto the side chain amine of a lysine. The structure of the compound provides options for incorporation of the molecule into peptides or large proteins. In addition, N^α-N^ε-(ferrocene-1-acetyl)-l-lysine exhibits nuclease activity. It is expected that incorporation of this ferrocenyl amino acid into any nucleic acid-binding protein will endow the protein with nuclease capability.