Flow birefringence study of sharkskin and stress relaxation in polybutadiene melts

In this paper we report rheo-optical and rheological observations made through a transparent slit die attached to a capillary rheometer. We find that the flow birefringence signal oscillates periodically near the die exit when sharkskin-like extrudate distortion is present. In contrast, steady behavior is observed in the die inland region. Specifically, the flow birefringence varies at the die exit with a period identical to that measured directly from the sharkskin extrudate. We also show that the exit flow instability leading to sharkskin can be observed directly through cross-polarizers in terms of the temporal change of the retardation order. We demonstrate that the same kind of interfacial flow instability can occur at a boundary discontinuity within the die land where the upper portion of a clean die wall meets the lower portion of a polysiloxane-coated die wall. Finally, stress relaxation upon the cessation of the slit die flow of two polybutadiene melts is studied through time-dependent flow birefringence measurements. The stress relaxation is then correlated with sharkskin time scales to describe the role of relaxation in sharkskin ridge formation. Received: 8 February 1999 Accepted: 28 July 1999     

Thermal contraction and volume relaxation of amorphous polymers

Two experimental techniques are described for the determination of the change of specific volume of polymers with temperature and aging time, which allow measurements between – 160 °C and + 200 °C. Four technical amorphous polymers, PS, PVC, PMMA and PC have been investigated. Volume-temperature curves under constant rate of cooling are presented and interpreted with respect to relaxation processes known from other physical investigations. The rate dependence of dilatometric glass transition temperatures is compared with the time dependence of rheometric glass transition temperatures from shear creep data. Volume relaxation data at constant aging temperature are presented. Aging is found to proceed until very low temperatures in the glassy state for e.g. PMMA.For polystyrene, a comparison is made between the predictions of a very simple theory of volume relaxation due to Kovacs with experimental data, using additional information from volume temperature curves and the time temperature shift of the shear creep transition. The theory predicts a rate of volume relaxation which is much lower than that found by experiment.     

On the use of stretched-exponential functions for both linear viscoelastic creep and stress relaxation

The use of the stretched-exponential function to represent both the relaxation function g(t)=(G(t)-G _∞)/(G ₀-G _∞) and the retardation function r(t) = (J _∞+t/η-J(t))/(J _∞-J ₀) of linear viscoelasticity for a given material is investigated. That is, if g(t) is given by exp (?(t/τ)^β), can r(t) be represented as exp (?(t/λ)^µ) for a linear viscoelastic fluid or solid? Here J(t) is the creep compliance, G(t) is the shear modulus, η is the viscosity (η^?1 is finite for a fluid and zero for a solid), G _∞ is the equilibrium modulus G _e for a solid or zero for a fluid, J _∞ is 1/G _e for a solid or the steady-state recoverable compliance for a fluid, G ₀= 1/J ₀ is the instantaneous modulus, and t is the time. It is concluded that g(t) and r(t) cannot both exactly by stretched-exponential functions for a given material. Nevertheless, it is found that both g(t) and r(t) can be approximately represented by stretched-exponential functions for the special case of a fluid with exponents β=µ in the range 0.5 to 0.6, with the correspondence being very close with β=µ=0.5 and λ=2τ. Otherwise, the functions g(t) and r(t) differ, with the deviation being marked for solids. The possible application of a stretched-exponential to represent r(t) for a critical gel is discussed.     

Stress relaxation and creep of polymer gels in solvent under uniaxial and biaxial deformations

Stress relaxation and creep of polymer gels in solvent under various deformation modes such as uniaxial, strip-biaxial, and equibiaxial were theoretically investigated. The magnitudes of relaxed stress and the creep at equilibrium under each deformation mode were derived by a thermodynamic consideration of gel system. Combining a constitutive equation of gel with the equation of motion of polymer network, the stress and strain under each deformation mode have been formulated. The theory proposed here was applied to the rectangular gels under various deformations to calculate the stress relaxation and creep behavior of polymer networks in solvent. Two methods different in treatment of swelling under the constant strain or stress were employed for the calculation: one is based on the assumption that the swelling proceeds isotropically, and the other considers the anisotropic swelling process. The results obtained by the two methods mainly differ in the diffusion mode determining the swelling behavior. The possibility of undershoot of relative strain in load-free direction in the creep is also expected.     

爆轰驱动对钨珠终点弹道性能的影响

通过实验比较了理想球形钨珠和经历爆轰驱动的钨珠（初始为球形）主要终点弹道性能的差异,结果表明:(1) 钨珠经爆轰驱动后,发生轻微的质量损失和变形现象,直径6.0 mm和7.5 mm钨珠的质量损失平均为8.4%;(2) 对于理想球形钨珠,在同一初始速度条件下,衰减系数为常数,空气阻力系数仅与初始速度有关,两者成线性关系,而对于经历爆轰驱动的钨珠,衰减系数不再为常数,空气阻力系数与飞行速度有关,两者成线性关系;(3) 爆轰驱动明显降低了钨珠的穿甲能力,但长距离飞行后,钨珠仍具有较强的穿甲能力,是破片式战斗部或杀爆战斗部较理想的选择。     

TiC颗粒含量及尺寸对原位TiCp／Fe复合材料耐磨性的影响

研究了ＴｉＣ颗粒的含量不寸对原位ＣｔＣｐ／Ｆｅ复合材料耐磨料磨损性能的影响。结果表明：当ＴｉＣ颗粒的尺寸为５．０μｍ时,复合材料的耐磨性随ＴｉＣ颗粒含量的增加而提高;在ＴｉＣ颗粒的含量为１０．１％,尺寸小于５．０μｍ时,复合村料的耐磨性随尺寸的增大而提高;而当颗粒尺寸大于５．０－μｍ后,耐磨性因ＴｉＣ颗粒的剥落反而下降,分析认为,复合材料的耐磨性与其组织中ＴｉＣ颗粒的间距密切相关,间距赵小,复合材     

The test and simulation of ABS on rough,non-deformable terrains

It is well known that the performance of many antilock braking systems (ABS) deteriorate on rough, non-deformable surfaces due to a number of factors such as axle oscillations, wheel speed fluctuations and deficiencies in the algorithms. Rough terrain excitation further contribute to dynamic tyre effects such as loss of vertical contact and poor contact patch generation that leads to reduced longitudinal force generation. In this study, a slightly modified version of the Bosch ABS algorithm is implemented in Matlab/Simulink using co-simulation with a validated full vehicle ADAMS model that incorporate a valid high-fidelity FTire model. A non-ABS test vehicle is fitted with a commercial ABS modulator controlled by an embedded computer. The co-simulation model is validated with vehicle test data on both smooth and rough terrains. Initial results show that wheel speed fluctuations on rough terrain cause inaccuracies in the estimation of vehicle velocity and excessive noise on the derived rotational acceleration values. This leads to inaccurate longitudinal slip calculation and poor control state decisions respectively. It is concluded that, although the correlation is not yet as desired, the combined use of a simulation model and test vehicle can be a useful tool in the research of ABS braking on rough terrains.     

炸药粒度对爆轰合成超细金刚石得率的影响

为了进一步提高炸药爆轰合成超细金刚石(UltrafineDiamond,简称UFD)的得率,对RDX/TNT混合装药中RDX粒度对爆轰合成超细金刚石的影响进行了研究。实验结果表明RDX粒径对超细金刚石的得率有明显的影响,随着RDX粒径的增大UFD的得率随之提高;当使用同一粒径RDX时,改变RDX/TNT混合装药的组分配比,在一定程度上也提高了UFD的得率。并对制备的UFD进行了特性表征。     

粒度对HMX撞击感度的影响

采用12型工具法对炸药粒度与HMX(Cyclotetramethylenetetranitramine,奥克托今)撞击感度的关系进行了研究,并对撞击起爆机理进行了分析和探讨。结果表明:HMX炸药粒度对撞击感度有显著影响,且随着炸药粒度的增大,其撞击感度呈增大趋势。点火阶段对撞击起爆过程起决定性作用,影响点火阶段的因素就是决定其撞击感度高低的关键因素。晶体内部的活性中心是炸药受撞击时的起爆点,而且大晶粒炸药中更易形成优先点火的活性中心。     

Effect of particle size on a two-phase turbulent jet

The effect of particle size on two-phase turbulent jet flow structure is studied in the present experimental investigation. Polystyrene solid particles of 210, 460, and 780 μm were used. The particles' mass loading ratios ranged from 0 to 3.6. The flow Reynolds number was 2 ‘ 10⁴, which was based on the pipe nozzle diameter and the fluid-phase centerline velocity at the nozzle exit. A two-color laser-Doppler anemometer (LDA), combined with the amplitude discrimination method and the velocity filter method, was employed for measurement. The measurement range of the jet flow was from the initial pipe exit to 90D downstream. Results are presented for the mean velocities of particle and fluid phases, the flow's turbulent intensities and the flow's Reynolds stresses. The energy spectra and the correlation functions of the two-phase jet flow were also obtained by using another one-component He-Ne LDA system.     

Evaluation by means of stress relaxation (after a step strain) experiments of the viscoelastic behavior of polymer melts in uniaxial extension

 As is widely acknowledged, morphology in most materials is far more sensitive to extensional than to shear deformations but, unfortunately, due to the experimental difficulties involved, there are no non-destructive, morphology probing techniques in such flows, i.e., the equivalent of stress relaxation and oscillatory experiments in shear flows. This paper tries to overcome some of those drawbacks by proposing an experimental technique that allows stress relaxation experiments after a step strain in uniaxial extension to be performed. The benefits of this technique are twofold: (a) while the deformation is small enough for the response to be in the linear viscoelastic regime it constitutes a probe of the microstructure of the material and (b) it allows the departure to the non-linear regime to be studied, useful, for example, for the definition of the damping function in uniaxial extensional flow or for the study of the response of materials to fast transient flows with a strong extensional component, such as contraction flows. In this work the proposed technique, which requires a correction to the apparent (theoretical) strain rate in order to allow the calculation of the true Hencky strains attained during the strain step, is tested and validated for two polyisobutylene melts. Received: 9 April 2001 Accepted: 26 July 2001     

HMX粒度与爆轰波传播性能的关系研究

采用楔形装药,用临界截面厚度来表征爆轰波传播特性,分别对两种密度条件下HMX粒度对其自身和以HMX为主体的混合炸药HMX/F2641（wHMX/wF2641=95∶5）爆轰波传播性能的影响作了实验研究。结果表明:HMX粒度对爆轰波传播特性有显著的影响,随着HMX粒度的减小,临界截面厚度变小,即爆轰波传播性能增强;同一HMX粒度下, HMX/F2641爆轰波传播性能优于HMX;装药密度的增加有利于爆轰波传递。     

Theoretical analysis on the local critical stress and size effect for interfacial debonding in particle reinforced rheological materials

The mechanisms of interfacial debonding of particle reinforced rheological materials are studied. Based on an energy criterion, a simple formula of local critical stress for interfacial debonding is derived and expressed in terms of the interfacial energy. The particle size effect on interface debonding can then be analyzed easily owing to the fact that critical stress is inversely proportional to the square root of particle radius. By taking PP/CaCO₃ system as an example, the present energy criterion is compared with the mechanical debonding criterion, and it is found that under the condition that bond strength is equal to matrix strength and particle radius not over 0.2μm, the mechanical debonding criterion can be automatically satisfied if the energy criterion is satisfied. A relation between critical time and interface energy is calculated by using the energy criterion. The influences of the particle volume fraction and the parlicle size, the loading rate and the relaxation time of the matrix on the critical time of interfacial debonding are also discussed. Supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (19632030 and 19872007) and Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province.     

The effect of entanglements on the rheological behavior of polybutadiene critical gels

We investigated the stress relaxation behavior of critical gels originating from six nearly monodisperse, highly entangled polybutadiene melts of different molecular weight from 18000 to 97 000 g/mole. The polymers were vulcanized by a hydrosilation reaction which takes place nearly exclusively at the pendant 1,2-vinyl sites distributed randomly along the polybutadiene chain. The BSW spectrum represents the relaxation of the initial uncrosslinked precursor. A characteristic parameter is the longest relaxation time of the precursor. Crosslinking increases this longest time even further. Surprisingly, the relaxation spectrum of the precursor is not altered much by the crosslinking except for an additional long time behavior. At the gel point (critical gel), this long time behavior is self-similar. It follows the typical power law as described by the Chambon-Winter gel equation, G(t) = St ^–n , in the terminal zone. The critical relaxation exponent was found to be close to n = 0.5 over a range of stoichiometric ratios and for all precursor molecular weights analyzed. A new scaling relationship was found between the gel stiffness, S, and the precursor molecular weight of the form: S M _w ^zn , where exponent z from the zero shear viscosity-molecular weight relationship, ₀ M _w ^z , is commonly found to be z = 3.3 – 3.6.     

A fundamental relationship between the relaxation spectra and the tangent distribution function in the theory of linear viscoelasticity

The tangent distribution function (TDF) is analyzed within the theory of linear viscoelasticity on mechanical properties. A proof is given that both the relaxation and retardation spectra can be derived from the TDF, through a Fredholm integral equation. Furthermore, the relaxation strength can be calculated as a consequence of this relationship. Finally, as an example, the relationship is applied to discrete spectra.     

基于二重网格的动网格松弛法改进

相比传统的弹簧法等方法,基于球松弛算法的动网格松弛法在复杂边界大变形条件下可以得到质量更高的边界网格以及更大的极限变形量,但该方法在时间效率上还有提升的空间.引入二重网格,采用动网格松弛法进行稀疏网格的网格变形,将边界位移传递到整个网格计算域;再利用二重网格映射,将稀疏网格位移映射到原有计算网格的节点上.算例表明,改进...     

Transient behaviour of the mechanical loss factor of high density polyethylene during creep and relaxation

The mechanical loss factor of high density polyethylene has been measured during creep and stress relaxation experiments. The application of a constant stress (creep) or strain (relaxation) resulted in an instantaneous increase in tan above the value obtained in absence of the creep or relaxation process. During the flow the tan-value decreased and approached an apparent equilibrium value slightly above the value obtained without the static load or deformation. This behaviour was observed both at 1 and 10 Hz and at 23 and 60 °C. It is suggested that this time dependence of the mechanical loss factor is associated with the basic mechanisms responsible for the creep or relaxation process itself.     

Influence of the particle size and volume fraction on micro-damage of the composites

The bulk and shear modulus of metal matrix composites with various volume fractions of particles are modified based on the Eshelby’s equivalent inclusion method combined with self-consistent scheme. By introducing the modified modulus, a new model, which can predict the particle size effects on the stress–strain relation under interfacial debonding damage between matrix and particles, is established. The results obtained from the present investigation show a better agreement with the experimental data.     

颗粒存在对网栅后气相流动湍流特性的影响

应用 L DV测试技术对方管内网栅后的气固两相流动 ,在颗粒平均粒径 Dp =0 .2 1 mm,颗粒质量浓度为 0 .2 4%、0 .36 % ;Dp =0 .35 mm,颗粒质量浓度为 0 .1 2 %、0 .2 1 %、0 .335 % ;Dp =0 .6 mm,颗粒质量浓度为 0 .1 6 %、0 .2 45 %、0 .34 5 % ;Dp =0 .9mm,颗粒质量浓度为 0 .2 0 5 %、0 .30 %多种工况下进行了测量 ,得出各种工况下气流脉动速度、湍动能沿流动方向的衰减规律 ,通过与纯气流条件下的实验结果比较 ,分析了颗粒浓度及颗粒尺寸对网栅后气相流动湍流特性的影响。根据测量结果 ,提出了一个在有固相颗粒存在时 ,关于湍流模型方程中模型常数 C2的修定方法。