Aspects of nanometer scale imaging with extreme ultraviolet (EUV) laboratory sources

Imaging systems with nanometer resolution are instrumental to the development of the fast evolving field of nanoscience and nanotechnology. Decreasing the wavelength of illumination is a direct way to improve the spatial resolution in photon-based imaging systems and motivated a strong interest in short wavelength imaging techniques in the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) region. In this review paper, various EUV imaging techniques, such as 2D and 3D holography, EUV microscopy using Fresnel zone plates, EUV reconstruction of computer generated hologram (CGH) and generalized Talbot self-imaging will be presented utilizing both coherent and incoherent compact laboratory EUV sources. Some of the results lead to the imaging with spatial resolution reaching 50 nm in a very short exposure time. These techniques can be used in a variety of applications from actinic mask inspection in the EUV lithography, biological imaging to mask-less lithographic processes in nanofabrication.     

Soft X-ray Holographic Microscopy with Sub-micrometer Resolution

Gabor X-ray in-line holograms are recorded with a photoresist at Hefei National Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory. An Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) is used to read the X-ray holograms of minute granules recorded on photoresist PMMA. Digitized hologram is reconstructed by numerical method. The granules with a size less than 0.3 μm can be resolved in the reconstructed image. So the eatimated resolution reaches the level of suibmicrometer.     

Soft X-ray Holographic Microscopy with Sub-micrometer Resolution

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水窗波段同轴X射线全息成像及其数字重现

水窗波段同轴Ｘ射线全息成像及其数字重现张玉火亘蒋诗平付绍军张新夷（中国科学技术大学国家同步辐射实验室，合肥２３００２９）陈建文徐至展陈敏（中国科学院上海光学精密机械研究所，上海２０１８００）水窗波段软Ｘ射线对生物样品成像时，不需要电子显微镜观察时那样...     

EUV波段电光成像系统分辨率的实验研究

基于微通道板 (MicrochannelPlate ,MCP)探测器件设计一套成像系统 ,用于对极紫外 (ExtremeUl traviolet,EUV)波段的光进行成像。结果在 13,17 1,19 5和 30 4nm处获得了一个宽度为 3mm的狭缝的像 ,其相应的空间分辨率分别为 85 ,12 0 ,182和 4 95 μm ,最佳为 85 μm ,对应波长 13nm ,而且波长越短 ,分辨率越高 ,图像的亮度也越高。     

同轴软X射线全息成像及其数字重现

用光刻胶记录了水窗波段同轴Ｘ射线全息图,并以数字方法再现了原物像。所用光源为经线性单色仪单色化的８００ＭｅＶ电子储存环弯铁辐射（３．２０ｎｍ）。再现物体的分辨率为２μｍ,并有较大提高的可能性     

Infrared digital reflective-holographic 3D shape measurements

We present a series of experiments to demonstrate digital holography on reflective objects at wavelength 10.6 μm of a CO₂ laser using a pyrocam array. Fresnel holograms of reflective objects are recorded by a Mach-Zehnder interferometer. We describe a method for improving the accuracy of the numerical reconstructions and for compensating the loss of resolution at longer wavelength by Fresnel reconstruction of digitally recorded infrared holograms.     

At-wavelength inspection of sub-40 nm defects in extreme ultraviolet lithography mask blank by photoemission electron microscopy

A new at-wavelength inspection technology to probe nanoscale defects buried underneath Mo/Si multilayers on an extreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography mask blank has been implemented using EUV photoemission electron microscopy (EUV-PEEM). EUV-PEEM images of programmed defect structures of various lateral and vertical sizes recorded at an ~13.5 nm wavelength show that 35 nm wide and 4 nm high buried line defects are clearly detectable. The imaging technique proves to be sensitive to small phase jumps, enhancing the edge visibility of the phase defects, which is explained in terms of a standing wave enhanced image contrast at resonant EUV illumination.     

Incoherent digital holographic spectral imaging with high accuracy of image pixel registration

Fresnel incoherent correlation holography(FINCH) is a unique three-dimensional(3 D) imaging technique which has the advantages of scanning-free,high resolution,and easy matching with existing mature optical systems.In this article,an incoherent digital holographic spectral imaging method with high accuracy of spectral reconstruction based on liquid crystal tunable filter(LCTF) and FINCH is proposed.Using the programmable characteristics of spatial light modulator(SLM),a series of phase masks,none of whose focal lengths changes with wavelength,is designed and made.For each wavelength of LCTF output,SLM calls three phase masks with different phase constants at the corresponding wavelength,and CCD records three holograms.The spectral images obtained by this method have a constant magnification,which can achieve pixel-level image registration,restrain image registration errors,and improve spectral reconstruction accuracy.The results show that this method can not only obtain the 3 D spatial information and spectral information of the object simultaneously,but also have high accuracy of spectral reconstruction and excellent color reproducibility.     

双波长数字全息相位解包裹方法研究

使用两个不同的波长分别记录数字全息图,分别由数值再现得到每个波长对应的包裹相位图,再求得两者的相位差得到等效波长的相位图,通过此双波长相位解包裹方法得到连续的相位分布以消除相位包裹。通过数值模拟研究了双波长相位解包裹方法,搭建了双波长数字全息实验系统,并利用660nm和671nm两个波长的激光对标准石英平片和平凹透镜进行了相衬成像。通过双波长相位解包裹方法得到了连续的相位分布,实验结果与数值模拟结果具有较好的一致性,证明了双波长相位解包裹方法的有效性。     

可获得高分辨率谱线信息的新型太阳极紫外成像仪

极紫外光谱观测和诊断是研究太阳大气基本物理过程的最重要手段之一。但因为波长短,很多可见光仪器的设计方案不再适用,且极紫外观测只能在太空中开展。国际上现有卫星上的太阳极紫外成像仪和光谱仪都有各自的不足,比如极紫外成像仪不能获得高光谱分辨率的谱线信息;狭缝式光谱仪通过扫描可得到活动区域的信息,但扫描时间过长,对于研究剧烈变化的太阳活动有很大的局限性。这些不足制约了对日冕物质抛射(CME)和耀斑等太阳活动的高精度观测及对其机理的研究：无法看到CME在内日冕的加速过程,而且无法将可见光看到的CME现象同极紫外看到的日面源区直接联系;缺少观测目标的视向速度信息,难以识别CME的触发过程。采用多级衍射成像方式的一种新型太阳极紫外成像仪,除实现传统极紫外成像仪功能外,还可以在太阳活动变化过程中同步获得全日面各区域的光谱信息。新型成像仪可以得到高光谱分辨率数据,用于反演低日冕的等离子体视向速度,获得全日面的速度分布,与同时得到的高空间分辨率图像相结合,可以识别太阳活动现象对应的物质运动, 为空间科学研究提供数据;因为没有狭缝和运动部件,可以实现对大视场的太阳活动区域的高时间分辨率成像,有利于捕捉日面活动的快速变化。新型成像仪采用无狭缝光谱分光成像的设计理念,即同一时间把一定光谱带宽的信息记录到一个二维的图像上,此过程可以看成是从某一个角度将空间和光谱数据立方体投影到一个面上,然后再利用反演得到空间分辨图像和光谱信息。多级光谱成像的光学设计与传统光谱仪最大的不同是其不存在逐行扫描的狭缝,这使得其能够同时获得大视场内太阳的空间信息和光谱信息。因为极紫外波段的特殊性,以及本仪器面向卫星遥感应用,不可能像可见光波段或者医用CT机一样实现很多衍射级的同时成像。因此,新型极紫外成像仪光学系统由反射镜、色散光栅和五个探测器组成,入射的太阳极紫外辐射经过光栅色散后分别由五个级次的探测器接收,其中四个探测器分部接收±1和±2衍射级图像,另外一个接收0级图像。空间信息可以直接从0级图像得到,而光谱信息则需要根据五个级次成像的反演结果得出。介绍了光学系统的设计以及反演算法,并分析了反演算法的误差。光路基于变间距光栅设计,可实现空间分辨率1.8 arcsec·pixel-1, 光谱分辨率7.8×10-3 nm·pixel-1,同时减小了体积和重量,适合空间应用。     

A preliminary study of the distribution of plankton using hologrammetry

The distribution and dynamics of particles in the aquatic environment play an important role in the modelling of bio-geochemical processes. Previous work on the measurement of such particles, which vary in size from tens of micrometres (individual cells) to several centimetres (aggregates such as ‘marine snow’), has mainly used electronic counting or conventional photography coupled with image analysis. Here we report on an initial study of the use of holographic mensuration, otherwise known as hologrammetry, for the enumeration, sizing and spatial distribution determination of plankton. We present results on imaging plankton in water tanks using both in-line and off-axis pulsed-laser holography. In this work, we have recorded in-line holograms in a volume of 2400 cm³ of water with a resolution of better than 20 μm and off-axis holograms in a volume of 36000 cm³ with a resolution of 140 μm. In both cases, identifiable images of plankton were obtained and precise spatial coordinates determined from the in-line holograms.     

Spatio-temporal development of microdischarges in a surface barrier discharge arrangement in air at atmospheric pressure

The spatio-temporal development of single microdischarges in an asymmetric surface barrier discharge arrangement was investigated. The arrangement consisted of two needle electrodes laid on a dielectric plate. The discharge was operated in dry air at atmospheric pressure with a sinusoidal applied voltage. The discharge was investigated by current-voltage measurements as well as two optical techniques, the intensified CCD imaging (equipped with a far-field microscope) and the cross-correlation spectroscopy. While the combined methods of iCCD imaging and far-field microscope recorded two-dimensional pictures with a high spatial resolution, the CCS recorded the spatio-temporal development of the luminosity of the 0–0 transitions of the second positive system (λ = 337.1 nm) and first negative system (λ = 391.5 nm) of molecular nitrogen. The intensities of these two bands were measured with a fine spatial and temporal resolution. It was found that both half periods have significant differences in the mechanism. While the positive half period behaves similar as volume or coplanar barrier discharges, during the negative half period no positive streamer was detected.     

基于螺旋相位调制的非相干全息点扩散函数研究

分析了菲涅耳非相干相关全息(Fresnel incoherent correlation holography,FINCH)系统中纯相位空间光调制器(spatial light modulator,SLM)加载螺旋相位掩模时的点扩散函数.以氙灯为照明光源搭建了FINCH系统,电荷耦合器记录的点源全息图与点扩散函数模拟结果一致.采用该系统分别在SLM上加载双透镜掩模和螺旋相位调制双透镜掩模两种情况下对分辨率板和非染色洋葱细胞成像,给出了成像对比结果.结果表明:采用螺旋相位调制的FINCH系统可以在几乎不牺牲分辨率的情况下提高图像的边缘对比度;同样,对相位物体也可以实现图像的边缘提取和识别.该方法在实时监测活细胞的分裂、形变等方面具有重要应用前景.     

三维漫射体单波长真彩色彩虹全息术

提出一种新的三维漫反射物体真彩色彩虹全息术,在普通一步法真彩色彩虹全息术的基础上,用单波长激光逆光路再现,可在同一种记录介质上一次曝光记录三维物体的真彩色全息图.因而特别适合于制作光致抗蚀剂模压全息母板.     

Project for manufacturing a Russian EUV nanolithographer for the fabrication of chips according to technological standards of 22 nm

We examine the development of the project for manufacturing a Russian nanolithographer with an operating wavelength of λ = 13.5 nm for fabricating nanoelectronic element bases (chips) according to technological standards of 32–22 nm at the first stage and 22–16 nm at the second. A list of the project’s main participants and their duties is presented. An overview of current situation in EUV lithography in Russia is given. The main problems to be solved on the road to mass production of electronic components involving EUV lithography are discussed.     

Novel TMM for analyzing evanescent waves and optimized subwavelength imaging in a multilayer structure

Here, we report the best configuration for metal-dielectric multilayer structure that recently has been used for sub-wavelength imaging beyond the diffraction limit. We have used Genetic Algorithm (GA) to achieve the best optical transfer function (OTF) calculated by a novel Transfer Matrix Method (TMM) for evanescent waves, to find optimized configuration of the structure for sub-wavelength imaging. Our optimized configuration composed of Ag–GaP with 10 nm thickness for both layers and air as the surrounding medium, shows 0.05 λ imaging resolution with 83.82% contrast at 545 nm wavelength. Also, we show that in photolithographic applications if imaging and object layers are replaced by a photoresist and quartz respectively instead of air, 0.03 λ resolution can be obtained. In contrast to the other works, we have mathematically obtained a structure that exhibits better resolution in a visible wavelength in spite of thinner layers thickness by regarding fabrication difficulties.     

Computer generated holograms using personal computers

Holography or the method of wave-front reconstruction to produce an image was introduced by D. Gabor in 1948. Normally a laser is necessary to produce holograms in the laboratory. This paper introduces the usage of the high resolution display of the IBM-PC and a graphics printer to generate holograms. The advantages of using this method are that holograms of real or fictitious objects can be made, since all objects can be represented by a collection of points and one does not need an elaborate set up to make the holograms. This method is also useful for making Fourier transform holograms, image plane holograms, spatial filters, optical elements, etc.^1,2     

Spatial and force resolution of magnetic force microscopy in current imaging

Magnetic force microscopy (MFM) can be used to image current distributions in current leads of sub-micron dimensions. Here we present a systematic study about the spatial and force resolution of such currents. In the case of force resolution, we studied the least measurable magnetic force of MFM for different sample currents. The analysis of images from parallel Al conducting plates are combined with those from force-distance curves and finite element calculations. Several interacting regimes between the magnetic tip and the currents are found and interpreted. It is shown that model calculations are necessary even for qualitative image interpretation. Then spatial resolution in the range of 100nm can well be obtained and quantitative studies of current distribution on widths of 10nm resolution are possible in special cases. The approach is demonstrated in imaging the current distribution in superconducting Bi₂Sr₂CaCu₂O _x single crystals. Presented at the VIII-th Symposium on Surface Physics, Třešt’ Castle, Czech Republic, June 28 – July 2, 1999. This work was supported in part by the Swiss Priority Program on Materials. The authors benefited greatly from discussions with D.A. Bonnell, B. Huey and C. Rüegg.     

Speckle-free imaging of two-dimensional microscopic objects by holography

Schemes for recording and reconstruction of relief-phase reflection holograms providing virtually aberration-free imaging of the structure of two-dimensional objects were developed and substantiated. Samples of relief-phase reflection holograms forming a speckle-free image of a photolithographic test pattern with a characteristic size of 0.8 μm at a wavelength of 0.488 μm with a numerical aperture of 0.6 were obtained on a layer of recording medium (chalcogenide deposited on a plane glass substrate). On the basis of the results obtained, it was concluded that it is practically possible to attain the diffraction limit of hologram resolution and that further studies aimed at the implementation of methods of optical holography into photolithography and, predominantly, into short-wavelength ultraviolet lithography, are undoubtedly promising.