An Examination of Teacher Understanding of Project Based Science as a Result of Participating in an Extended Professional Development Program: Implications for Implementation

Project‐based science (PBS) aligns with national standards that assert children should learn science by actively engaging in the practices of science. Understanding and implementing PBS requires a shift in teaching practices away from one that covers primarily content to one that prompts children to conduct investigations. A common challenge to PBS implementation is a misunderstanding of the elements of PBS. Identification of these misunderstandings as well as implementation challenges could inform professional development. This case study examined 24 teachers’ understanding and implementation of PBS during participation in a consecutive three‐year, comprehensive professional development program. Results provide insight as to the process they followed in the transition to implementing PBS. Measures included classroom observations, reflective interviews, and attitudinal surveys. Results showed that teachers developed the knowledge, confidence, and understanding to implement PBS but in most cases it took at least two to three years for positive results to become evident. Teachers struggled to develop adequate driving questions that provided project‐focused lessons. Other obstacles included teacher resistance to student‐directed instruction, confusing inquiry‐based instruction with hands‐on activities, and inability to motivate students to work in collaborative teams. While challenging, over time the teachers developed the knowledge, desire, and skills to implement PBS.     

Effective Professional Development and Change in Practice: Barriers Science Teachers Encounter and Implications for Reform

This study focused on two middle schools in the central US who participated in collaborative, sustained, whole‐school professional development in implementing inquiry as part of National Science Education Standards, or standards‐based instructional practices. Participants were involved in their second year of the professional development experience. The research question explored was, “What barriers do science teachers encounter when implementing standards‐based instruction while participating in effective professional development experiences?” Qualitative data collected in the form of teacher interviews and classroom observations were utilized and were analyzed using a barrier to reform rubric. Findings indicate that even with effective professional development, science teachers still encounter technical, political, and cultural barriers to implementation. More support is required for professional development efforts to be successful, such as resources and time, as well as administrative buy‐in and support. Findings also revealed that even the best intended professional development efforts do not reveal and address existing beliefs for all teachers. Implications for future science education reform stakeholders are discussed.     

Science Conference Presenters’ Images of Inquiry

Inquiry‐focused professional development and conceptions of inquiry held by eight professional development leaders were investigated within the context of a state science teacher conference. The prominent session format involved session leaders modeling classroom experiences. In all sessions, classroom inquiry was portrayed as a teacher‐guided activity with the primary goal being to increase motivation for engaging students in classroom inquiry. The leaders’ conceptualized inquiry primarily as a teaching approach with various goals, characteristics, and potential barriers. The findings of this study provide evidence of how inquiry, a prominent feature of science education reform, was portrayed in sessions at a conference sponsored by a state affiliate of the National Science Teachers Association and thought about by persons who led these sessions. The findings have implications for teacher learning from conference‐based professional development and its potential influence on science teacher thinking and practice.     

Peer‐coaching as a component of a professional development model for biology teachers

To increase the likelihood for continuous growth and improvement, professional development for high school biology teachers should include long‐term, targeted instruction with an accompanying peer‐coaching component. This study examined the views of biology teachers who were engaged in a two‐year professional development program, which included a strong peer‐coaching component. With an overall goal of enhancing the teachers’ instructional practices, the peer‐coaches and teachers collaborated to increase the amount of inquiry in the science classroom. Data were collected using focus groups and researcher notes. Emergent themes included the significance of relationships, importance of teacher commitment, and resulting change and growth in educators.     

Urban Third Grade Teachers' Practices and Perceptions in Science Instruction with English Language Learners

The study examined relationships among key domains of science instruction with English language learning (ELL) students based on teachers' perceptions of their classroom practices (i.e., what they think they do) and actual classroom practices (i.e., what they are observed doing). The four domains under investigation included: (1) teachers' knowledge of science content; (2) teaching practices to support scientific understanding; (3) teaching practices to support scientific inquiry; and (4) teaching practices to support English language development during science instruction. The study involved 38 third‐grade teachers participating in the first‐year implementation of a professional development intervention aimed at improving science and literacy achievement of ELL students in urban elementary schools. Based on teachers' self‐reports, practices for understanding were related to practices for inquiry and practices for English language development. Based on classroom observations in the fall and spring, practices for understanding were related to practices for inquiry, practices for English language development, and teacher knowledge of science content. However, we found a weak to non‐existent relationship between teachers' self‐reports and observations of their practices.     

Authentic and Simulated Professional Development: Teachers Reflect What is Modeled

Science is a dynamic discipline, representative of the nature of science. Yet, young science students continue to think everything is already discovered. In this study, we examine why students are not actively doing science. From professional development to student engagement, how are classrooms and students changing as we increase teachers' content knowledge? Teaching practices modeled in professional development can change what occurs in the classroom. Our study was designed to probe differences in two different types of professional development programs both focused on content knowledge. We found that what is modeled by the professional developers has a profound effect on the direction of the classroom. This matched controlled study found that teachers reflect the teaching practice modeled by professional developers through their individual classroom teaching practices. A significant difference was found in cognitive activities and questioning skills between teachers in a professional development program modeling authentic inquiry versus the teachers in a professional development modeling simulated inquiry. While both groups increased the amount of overall inquiry used in the classroom, students whose teachers were in authentic inquiry professional development were engaged in higher cognitive activities and questioning skills. If students are engaged in dynamic classrooms, searching for answers to students' questions, perhaps they will understand that science is a dynamic discipline.     

Learning to Teach Inquiry: A Beginning Science Teacher of English Language Learners

Early career science teachers are often assigned to classrooms with high numbers of English language learners (ELLs). For the underprepared early career science teacher, these circumstances are challenging. This study examines the changes in beliefs and practices of an early career science teacher who taught high numbers of ELLs in an urban setting. Victoria participated in the Alternative Support for Induction Science Teachers (ASIST) program during her initial two years of teaching. Our research team followed her over a three‐year period, and the data collected included classroom observations and interviews about her beliefs and practices. In addition, documents such as teacher evaluations and classroom artifacts were collected periodically for the purpose of triangulation. The analysis of the data revealed that with the support of the ASIST program, Victoria implemented inquiry lessons and utilized instructional materials that promoted language and science competencies for her ELLs. Conversely, standardized testing and her teaching assignment played a role in constraining the implementation of inquiry‐based practices. The results of this study call for collaborative efforts between university science educators and school administrators to provide professional development opportunities and support to build the capacity of early career science teachers of ELLs.     

Voices from the Front Lines: Exemplary Science Teachers on Education Reform

The purpose of this study is to gain insight into the experiences that nationally award‐winning, exemplary science teachers have had over their career and examine the alignment of their responses with calls for K‐12 science education reform from a selection of prominent commissioned government reports since 1980. From an assessment of the alignment of exemplary teachers, calls for reform have had a limited effect and highlight the weakness of using national reports as a wide‐scale, nationalized approach to science education reform. Findings are focused on seven different areas of teacher development: classroom issues, teaching scientific inquiry, use of technology, preservice experiences, professional development of in‐service teachers, vertical articulation, and science education reform over time. Among other issues, the teachers indicated one of the biggest barriers to inquiry teaching is the pressure to conform to high‐stakes testing and the lack of examples of inquiry teaching during teacher education experiences.     

Beginning Secondary Science Teachers' Conceptualization and Enactment of Inquiry‐Based Instruction

This study investigates the conceptions and use of inquiry during classroom instruction among beginning secondary science teachers. The 44 participants were beginning secondary science teachers in their first year of teaching. In order to capture the participants' conceptions of inquiry, the teachers were interviewed and observed during the school year. The interviews consisted of questions about inquiry instruction, while the observations documented the teachers' use of inquiry. All of the interviews were transcribed or coded in order to understand the conceptions of inquiry held by the teachers, and all of the observations were analyzed in order to determine the presence of inquiry during the lesson. The standard for assessing inquiry came from the National Science Education Standards. A quantitative analysis of the data indicated that the teachers frequently talked about implementing “scientific questions” and giving “priority to evidence.” This study found a consistency between the way new teachers talked about inquiry and the way they practiced it in their classrooms. Overall, our observations and interviews revealed that the beginning secondary science teachers tended to enact teacher‐centered forms of inquiry, and could benefit from induction programs focused on inquiry instruction.     

The Relationship of Teacher‐Facilitated,Inquiry‐Based Instruction to Student Higher‐Order Thinking

Commissions, studies, and reports continue to call for inquiry‐based learning approaches in science and math that challenge students to think critically and deeply. While working with a group of middle school science and math teachers, we conducted more than 100 classroom observations, assessing several attributes of inquiry‐based instruction. We sorted the observations into two groups based on whether students both explored underlying concepts before receiving explanations and contributed to the explanations. We found that in both math and science classrooms, when teachers had students both explore concepts before explanations and contribute to the explanations, a higher percent of time was spent on exploration and students were more frequently involved at a higher cognitive level. Further, we found a high positive correlation between the percent of time spent exploring concepts and the cognitive level of the students, and a negative correlation between the percent of time spent explaining concepts and the cognitive level. When we better understand how teachers who are successful in challenging students in higher‐order thinking spend their time relative to various components of inquiry‐based instruction, then we are better able to develop professional development experiences that help teachers transition to more desired instructional patterns.     

Comparison of two alternative approaches to quality STEM teacher preparation: Fast‐track licensure and embedded residency programs

Alternative pathways to teaching licensure were developed to address teacher shortages. These programs differ widely, making it difficult to generalize the effects. This study compares the impact of two alternative licensure programs on the development of fundamental elements of science teacher preparation and persistence. The fast‐track programs include a 6‐month teacher preparation program and a one‐year residency teacher preparation program. The study concluded that licensure type was unassociated with the impact on teaching self‐efficacy, beliefs about teacher‐focused/student‐focused teaching, preferences for inquiry instructional practices, and experiences with student misbehavior. However, the study revealed that licensure type was associated with a number of other variables: residency students had more confidence in their ability to provide quality instruction; preferred inquiry‐based instruction more often; and may be better prepared for the high‐needs classroom. Those in the 6‐month program were more likely to score higher on practical versus theoretical approaches to teaching, and while they had a more realistic idea of how to measure success in the high‐needs classroom, the residency students had more knowledge of educational theory and how to apply it. Findings suggest that more traditionally licensed teachers may be more inclined to use inquiry‐based methods suggested in current reforms.     

Building Teacher‐Scientist Partnerships: Teaching About Energy Through Inquiry

This study evaluated the effectiveness of teacher‐scientist partnerships for increasing the use. of inquiry in precollege classrooms. It assessed the influence of the Teaching About Energy Through Inquiry Institutes for middle and high school teachers and energy scientists on participants' attitudes about science and science education, use of inquiry instructional techniques, and student attitudes about their classroom environments. Participant surveys, institute and classroom observations, lesson plans, and interviews indicated increased appreciation for inquiry, greater confidence in teaching using inquiry, and greater use of inquiry in the classroom. Student surveys and classroom observations pointed to higher levels of student satisfaction and less friction among classmates during inquiry‐based investigations implemented after the institutes. Moreover, scientist partners reported increased familiarity with principles of science education and best teaching practice, which are essential skills and knowledge for disseminating results of scientific research to nonscientific audiences, as well as their own students. These results suggest that collaborations between teachers and research scientists can positively affect the environment for learning science in precollege and college classes. Successful collaborations are most likely to occur when equal status for teachers and scientists in the partnership is stressed and partners have the opportunity to explore inquiry‐based curricula together.     

The Indiana Science Initiative: Lessons from a Classroom Observation Study

The Indiana Science Initiative (ISI) is a systemic effort to reform K–8 science education. The program provides teachers with professional development, reform‐oriented science modules, and materials support. To examine the impact of the initiative's professional development, a participant observation study was conducted in the program's pilot year. Five teachers in grades 3–6 were observed and interviewed as they implemented the ISI‐provided modules. Analysis of the observation data revealed that the teachers incorporated each of the features of inquiry science instruction. However, they did not consistently teach in a way that was aligned with the intent of the ISI. Examination of interview data provided insight into influences on teachers' use of inquiry with the ISI‐provided modules. These data revealed that teachers were aware of the intent of the ISI and attempted to align their instruction. However, teachers were influenced by their perceptions of students' behavior and abilities as well as timing and the appropriate level of teacher control needed to facilitate science instruction. The research suggests that professional development activities should prepare teachers to help learners evaluate explanations against alternatives, connect explanations to scientific knowledge, and provide strategies to address teachers' perceptions of students, timing, and teacher control.     

Relationships Between Inquiry‐Based Teaching and Physical Science Standardized Test Scores

This exploratory case study investigates relationships between use of an inquiry‐based instructional style and student scores on standardized multiple‐choice tests. The study takes the form of a case study of physical science classes taught by one of the authors over a span of four school years. The first 2 years were taught using traditional instruction with low levels of inquiry (non‐inquiry group), and the last 2 years of classes were taught by inquiry methods. Students' physical science test scores, achievement data, and attendance data were examined and compared across both instructional styles. Results suggest that for this teacher the use of an inquiry‐based teaching style did not dramatically alter students' overall achievement, as measured by North Carolina's standardized test in physical science. However, inquiry‐based instruction had other positive effects, such as a dramatic improvement in student participation and higher classroom grades earned by students. In additional inquiry‐based instruction resulted in more uniform achievement than did traditional instruction, both in classroom measures and in more objective standardized test measures.     

Science Talk: Preservice Teachers Facilitating Science Learning in Diverse Afterschool Environments

The purpose of this study was to assess the impact a community‐based service learning program might have on preservice teachers' science instruction during student teaching. Designed to promote science inquiry, preservice teachers learned how to offer students more opportunities to develop their own ways of thinking through utilization of an afterschool science program that provided them extended opportunities to practice their science teaching skills. Three preservice teachers were followed to examine and evaluate the transfer of this experience to their student teaching classroom. Investigation methods included field observations and semi‐structured, individual interviews. Findings indicate that preservice teachers expanded their ideas of science inquiry instruction to include multiple modes of formative assessment, while also struggling with the desire to give students the correct answer. While the participants' experiences are few in number, the potential of afterschool teaching experience serving as an effective learning experience in preservice teacher preparation is significant. With the constraints of high‐stakes testing, community‐based service learning teaching opportunities for elementary and middle‐school preservice teachers can support both the development and refinement of inquiry instruction skills.     

The Effects of a STEM Intervention on Elementary Students' Science Knowledge and Skills

The purpose of the study was to assess elementary students' science process skills, content knowledge, and concept knowledge after one year of participation in an elementary Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) program. This study documented the effects of the combination of intensive professional development and the use of inquiry‐based science instruction in the elementary classroom, including the benefits of using rigorous science curriculum with general education students. The results of the study revealed a statistically significant gain in science process skills, science concepts, and science‐content knowledge by general education students in the experimental group when compared with students in the comparison group. Moreover, teacher participation in the STEM program had a statistically significant impact on students' variability in posttest scores. These interim student performance data support the implementation of rigorous differentiated science curriculum focused on improving science concept, content knowledge, and process skills.     

Investigating Essential Characteristics of Scientific Practices in Elementary Science Learning Environments: The Practices of Science Observation Protocol (P‐SOP)

Within the field of science education, there remains little agreement as to the definition and characteristics of classroom inquiry. The emerging emphasis on scientific practices in science education reform discourse is underpinned by a need to better articulate the constituent elements of inquiry‐based science. While a small number of observation‐based instruments have been developed to characterize science learning environments, few are explicitly aligned with theoretical constructs articulated by the National Research Council and/or have been substantially field‐tested. We employ a newly developed instrument, the Practices of Science Observation Protocol (P‐SOP), to investigate essential features of inquiry and scientific practices in which early learners engage in elementary classrooms. This research is part of a multiyear professional development program designed to support elementary teachers (K‐5) in a large, urban school district to learn to better engage students in scientific practices. Project teachers video‐recorded enacted science lessons (n = 124) which were used as data. Findings illustrate both essential features of inquiry and scientific practices observed in elementary classrooms, as well as establish the P‐SOP as a valid and reliable observation protocol. These findings have important implications for the design of elementary science learning environments and associated research and development efforts in the field.     

Exploring Graduate‐Level Scientists' Participation in a Sustained K‐12 Teaching Collaboration

To increase scientific literacy in America, the National Science Foundation has implemented the Graduate Teaching Fellows in K‐12 Initiative (GK‐12). In these programs graduate level scientists, known as Graduate Teaching Fellows (GTFs), act as resources for science teachers (Partner Teachers). This research examines the influence of participation in this program on the GTFs involved in one GK‐12 sustained collaboration that emphasizes the codevelopment and co‐implementation of hands‐on, inquiry‐based activities. Qualitative data in the form of interviews and observations were collected from a single cohort of Partner Teachers, GTFs, and the academic advisors of the GTFs for one academic year. The GTFs identified three benefits they received from working in the GK‐12 program: enhanced understanding of science content, fuller understanding of the complexities of teaching science, and understanding of inquiry‐based science teaching and its value. At the same time the GTFs experienced tensions related to differing views of science and science teaching held by the GTFs and the Partner Teachers. The GTFs also experienced professional risks in at least two ways due to their involvement in this program. One risk was the result of the time commitment required to be a GTF. The other was the result of what was termed competing foci. Illustrated in this case by the difficulties encountered as GTFs attempted to learn how to teach in a secondary science classroom while still learning to become research scientists.     

The Role of Teachers' Beliefs and Knowledge in the Adoption of a Reform‐Based Curriculum

Science as inquiry is a key content standard in the National Science Education Standards; however, few secondary science teachers successfully and consistently implement inquiry‐based instruction in their classrooms. This research examines the role of reform‐based curricular materials in influencing the classroom practices of 12 high school chemistry teachers and investigates the role of the teachers' knowledge and beliefs in their implementation of the reform‐based chemistry curriculum. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected in the form of beliefs interviews and classroom observations. The teachers' classroom practices were measured prior to and during the field test of the reform‐based chemistry curriculum. Analysis of the data revealed that teachers' classroom practice became more reform‐based in the presence of the new curriculum; however, the degree of change is related to the teachers' beliefs about teaching and learning, depth of chemistry knowledge, and years of teaching experience. Experienced, out‐of‐discipline teachers with transitional or student‐centered teaching beliefs demonstrated the most growth in reform‐based teaching practices. This study reinforces the need for reform‐based curriculum to assist teachers in implementing the intent of the National Science Education Standards.     

Multi‐Year Professional Development Grounded in Educative Curriculum Focused on Integrating Technology With Reformed Science Teaching Principles

Visions of science teaching and learning in the newest U.S. standards documents are dramatically different than those found in most classrooms. This research addresses these differences through closely examining one professional development (PD) project that connects teacher learning and teacher practice with student learning/achievement. This study examines the effects on eighth grade science teachers and their students in the context of a PD focused on the integration of information communication technologies and reformed science teaching practices. Findings from this investigation suggest that teachers who participated in PD for two years learned more about technology, improved their practice, and their students’ achievement was significantly higher compared to teachers who participated in one year of the PD or non‐participating peers. Science educators face multiple challenges as they attempt to deliver instruction in fundamentally different ways than what they experienced as learners. The delivery of this professional learning suggest that PD for science teachers should include educative learning experiences if understandings of reforms supported by research are to be realized.