O.R. and Public Expenditure Planning and Control

The problems of public expenditure planning and control to which O.R. can make a contribution are identified. Suggestions are made for research by those in O.R. both within government and in universities. Recent work in the Treasury on financial models and information systems are discussed in terms of how such work might be applied elsewhere and extended to include measures of achievement. The topics covered include planning for uncertainty and theory development by O.R. in models of inflation and social justice.     

O.R. Education — A Survey of Young O.R. Workers

This paper presents the results of a survey into O.R. education that was conducted with the help of those attending the Young O.R. Conference (YOR II) held at Nottingham University in March 1982. The results of a workshop debate held at the conference into the direction of O.R. education are also discussed.The conclusions drawn are that O.R. education in this country appears to be quite successful but that it is failing to deal satisfactorily with a number of issues. These issues relate to keeping up-to-date with changes in computer technology and their impact upon O.R. workers; the teaching of methodology to deal with ill-defined problems; preparation for the political and working environment of organizations; and the fostering of desirable personal characteristics.     

Anthropology and O.R.: The Place of Observation in Management Science Process

This paper is an argument to combine the methods of observation with O.R. techniques to form the basis of a management science process. The paper begins by defining a typology showing where observation methods seem to be most appropriate in O.R. interventions. This is followed by a section outlining some of the techniques and problems of observation as seen from the field of anthropology. Using this theory, combined with personal experience, an observation process is developed. An example of using the process is then given.     

Introducing the Microcomputer into the O.R. Department

This paper reviews the typical main-frame computer services that are currently available and by accepting the alleged advantages of microcomputers postulates the ideal computing requirements of O.R. departments. Experience of microcomputers in O.R. departments, within the N.C.B. and elsewhere, is considered in relation to these ideal requirements. It is concluded that although some main-frame computer services will remain essential to O.R. and accepting that the main-frame can give a reasonable general computing service, the micro offers additional advantages. These include: lower cost and/or better service, the ability to configure the equipment exactly to meet O.R. needs; full control over applications and priorities; and portability - which means that computing power can now be taken direct to the manager by the O.R. department.     

O.R. and the Systems Movement: Mappings and Conflicts

The ‘crisis’ debate in O.R. expresses concern at the divergence between textbook O.R. and what practitioners actually do. The debate is examined by comparing O.R., systems analysis and systems engineering. They are all wedded to logic in situations in which logic may not be paramount. The science in O.R. applies only to aggregate results, but the practitioner must deal with a specific situation. The tradition of systems thinking which emerged from organismic biology is described. It leads to a way out of the O.R. ‘crisis’, by providing a formal structuring of a paradigm of learning rather than optimization. O.R. can aspire to match natural science, and pass the problems by; or it can close the textbook/practitioner gap by changing its concept of ‘being scientific’.     

Lessons for O.R. from A.I.: A Scheduling Case Study

This paper compares operational research (O.R.) with the currently fashionable topic of artificial intelligence (A.I.) at a detailed level. A.I. concepts, techniques and history are summarized, and O.R. and A.I. approaches compared. A case study-the development of a potential aid to scheduling repair jobs on RAF squadrons—is described. The paper shows where A.I. concepts and techniques were used in the prototype program, known as the Fault Identification & Expediting Repair (FIXER) system. Finally, some lessons for O.R. are drawn.     

Lessons for O.R. from the World of Banking

This paper will be of interest to the reader concerned with O.R. in banking and to the more general reader concerned with the successful development of O.R. The paper describes and analyses the complex historical development of the O.R. Group in the National Westminster Bank, which, since 1966, has grown into one of the leading O.R. groups in finance. As well as providing a new and original documentation of the type of problem areas and approaches that have been examined in the relatively short history of O.R. in banking, the paper draws on the experience of O.R. at NatWest and that of other O.R. groups in other European banks in order to identify the factors which determine whether or not an O.R. group will develop successfully.     

Experiences with Using Expert Systems in O.R.

Increased awareness of expert systems technology, and the availability of relevant software, has tempted many O.R. groups to investigate the expert systems approach. This paper considers the strategies open to O.R. groups interested in employing expert systems, reviews some of the relevant software, and discusses what those O.R. groups who have already investigated the use of expert systems methods are actually doing.Some of the authors' experience of developing expert systems is discussed. The development of an expert system that helps bankers analyse company accounts is presented. The use of expert system methods as vehicles for decision analysis, and the possibilities for producing systems that act as O.R. consultants are also discussed.     

Some Aspects of Managing O.R. Projects

This paper presents views based on experiences as team member, project leader and Director of a large O.R. group, followed by observing the performance of several O.R. groups and finally as a user of O.R. in the position of part-time director of several companies. It looks at the importance of sponsorship, finding the right sponsor and ensuring that he is well-motivated and understood, the importance of management skills at the project leader level, correct definition of the project objective, thorough planning, selection and presentation of recommendations, implementation and checking the actual pay off. It also discusses the O.R. group as a whole, its place in the organisation, the portfolio of projects, development of O.R. staff and some thoughts on how the method of charging the organisation for O.R. projects may affect the long-term development of this activity. Finally, it presents symptoms of inefficiency and of impending failure of O.R. groups.     

The Art of Course Planning: Soft O.R. in Action

This article is a case study described from two viewpoints: that of an analyst and that of a ‘decision-maker’. It describes the use of two ‘soft O.R.’ methods in helping the members of a university O.R. group to plan revisions to a postgraduate Diploma course, resulting in the implementation of an improved course. One author conducted the exercise while the other was a member of the client group. Given that case studies are usually written by the analyst alone, it is hoped that a client's eye-view will be useful as feedback for practitioners and can also introduce some of the concepts and terminology of soft O.R. to those engaged in more mathematical O.R. activities.     

Programming Languages,Microcomputers and O.R.

The relationship between O.R. and computer programming is considered. The programming languages involved, and their respective roles, are reviewed. Criteria for assessing a programming language for O.R. are discussed, particularly in view of the increasing use of microcomputers within O.R.     

O.R. Education and Developing Economies with Special Reference to India

The paper reviews the current state of application of O.R. in general and in developed economies in particular. It then analyses the causes for unsatisfactory application of O.R. in developing economies. Based on the analysis, the paper proceeds to review the existing O.R. education and training and develops an integrated design of O.R. education and training for developing economies. The paper outlines the role that international agencies should play in implementing the proposed scheme of O.R. education and training for developing economies.     

The Changing Role of O.R.

The authors set out to consider the activities of their own O.R. group at British Airways in the light of Russ Ackoff's papers delivered at the 1978 ORS Conference, but the paper has developed into a discussion of Ackoff's ideas from the viewpoint of an in-house industrial O.R. group that has had considerable success in implementation and has thought a great deal about what it is trying to do. Particularly relevant is the emphasis placed by this O.R. group on highly interactive planning models and systems and on an evolutionary approach to development. Some attempt is made to put Ackoff's ideas into an historical perspective and his main points are discussed one by one. The authors are in sympathy with the direction Ackoff is pressing, but not with the gloom his paper has generated in some quarters.     

Model and Situation Specific O.R. Methods: Risk Engineering Reliability Analysis of an L.N.G. Facility

A decision situation and model-specific O.R. method developed for reliability analysis of an Arctic liquid natural gas facility is outlined. It was developed by modifying a decision situation and model-specific O.R. method developed earlier for time (schedule or programme) risk analysis of offshore North Sea projects. The role and value of such methods is discussed in relation to general O.R. methods and specific techniques like C.P.M./PERT.     

Organisational linkages and O.R. projects

An empirical study of a group of O.R. projects in presented with particular attention being paid to organisational interactions. The results are derived from detailed investigations of O.R. projects in which both the managers(s) and O.R. practitioner(s) were interviewed. This initial exploration has indicated a variety of organisational forms, and revealed the importance of non-formal processes that often take place.     

Corporate Planning and Its Use of O.R. in the N.C.B.: A Personal View

Moving from Operational Research to Corporate Planning within one organisation is a rather modest change, which nevertheless leads to a different perspective. While still an advisory function, Corporate Planning, to be successful, has to maintain itself at the centre of a `messy' system tackling `messy' problems. Holding on to a clear strategy in such circumstances is not only difficult but vital. The success of the strategy depends on its robustness and ability to adapt to new circumstances. Recent debates in the O.R. literature have focused on the importance of robustness and the nature of uncertainty using the paradigms of rational and bureaucratic processes. This is a useful perspective from which to view our activities and the relative roles of Operational Research and Corporate Planning, either separately or together. The term `mature' O.R. is used to differentiate research that has been built up over many years in the N.C.B. from the problem solving activity often used to characterise O.R. The challenge is to prevent maturity developing into old age.     

Artificial Intelligence—An Overview of Similarities with O.R.

A brief outline of A.I. is provided, noting problems, techniques and objectives which are similar to those found in O.R. It is intended that this will indicate to O.R. workers which A.I. areas might be worth following up as relevant to their own work and which problems in A.I. might be attacked by the O.R. community as part of the development of intelligent support systems.     

The Search for Appropriate O.R.: A Review of Operational Research in Developing Countries

This paper is a review of the literature relating to the application of O.R. in developing countries. The paper attempts to identify the special factors which affect decision problems in developing countries. Some desirable characteristics for O.R. in this context are outlined. The paper then summarises the results of a review of published studies, and some criticisms are made of current O.R. work.     

K-Factors and Hamilton Cycles in Graphs

We discuss k-factors and Hamiltonian Graphs in graph theory. We prove a general version of the conjecture by R. Haggkvist; as a result, we prove two extended versions of two well-known theorems due to O. Ore and B. Jachson, respectively.