Fermentability of water-soluble portion to ethanol obtained by supercritical water treatment of lignocellulosics

The water-soluble (WS) portion obtained by supercritical water treatment of lignocellulosics was studied for its fermentability to ethanol. A fermentation test of the WS portion showed it was not fermented to ethanol. Therefore, a wood characoal treatment was applied to the WS portion to remove furan and phenolic compounds, which are thought to be the inhibitors to sugar fermentability. It was found that treatment with wood charcoal can be effective at removing these inhibitors and improving the fermentability of the WS portion without reducing the levels of fermentable sugars.     

Effects of hemicellulose and lignin on enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose from dairy manure

This study focused on the effect of hemicellulose and lignin on enzymatic hydrolysis of dairy manure and hydrolysis process optimization to improve sugar yield. It was found that hemicellulose and lignin in dairy manure, similar to their role in other lignocellulosic material, were major resistive factors to enzymatic hydrolysis and that the removal of either of them, or for best performance, both of them, improved the enzymatic hydrolysis of manure cellulose. This result combined with scanning electron microscope (SEM) pictures further proved that the accessibility of cellulose to cellulase was the most important feature to the hydrolysis. Quantitatively, fed-batch enzymatic hydrolysis of fiber without lignin and hemicellulose had a high glucose yield of 52% with respect to the glucose concentration of 17 g/L at a total enzyme loading of 1300 FPU/L and reaction time of 160 h, which was better than corresponding batch enzymatic hydrolysis.     

The study of model systems subjected to sub- and supercritical water hydrolysis for the production of fermentable sugars

Bioenergy obtained from lignocellulosic biomass is considered the most efficient way to achieve sustainable development in the future. However, there still are challenges in the cellulose conversion to hexoses, which could be used as raw material for the bioenergy production. Sub- and supercritical water hydrolysis have been researched as emergent technologies to obtain simple sugars from lignocellulosic biomass; however, the reaction pathways and kinetics of the hydrolysis of cellulose into oligomers and monomers, and their degradation under sub- and supercritical conditions, are not completely understood yet. Thus, this review provides an overview of the state-of-the-art on hydrolysis with sub- and supercritical water of model systems, cellulose and starch, in the context of elucidating the reaction pathways and kinetic behavior of the biomass hydrolysis to produce suitable fermentation substrates for the production of second generation bioethanol and other biofuels.     

Optimization of steam explosion to enhance hemicellulose recovery and enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose in softwoods

A combination of Douglas fir heartwood and sapwood chips were steam pretreated under three conditions as measured by the Severity Factor (log R_o), which incorporated the time, temperature/pressure of pretreatment. By adjusting the steam pretreatment conditions, it was hoped to recover the majority of the hemicellulose component as monomers in the water-soluble stream, while providing a cellulosic-rich, water-insoluble fraction that could be readily hydrolyzed by cellulases. These three conditions were chosen to represent either high hemicellulose sugar recovery (low severity [L], log R_o=3.08), high-enzyme hydrolyzability of the cellulosic component (high severity [H], log R_o=4.21), and a compromise between the two conditions (medium severity [M], log R_o=3.45). The medium-severity pretreatment conditions (195°C, 4.5 min, 4.5% SO₂ logR_o=3.45) gave the best compromise in terms of relatively high hemicellulose recovery after stream pretreatment and the subsequent efficiency of enzymatic hydrolysis of the water-insoluble cellulosic fraction. The percent recovery of the original hemicellulose in the water-soluble fraction dropped significantly when the severity was increased (L-76.8%, M-64.7%, and H-37.5%). However, the ease of enzymatic hydrolysis of the cellulose-rich, water-insoluble fraction increased with increasing severity (L-24%, M-86.6%, and H-97.9%). Although more severe pretreatment conditions provided optimum hydrolysis of the cellulosic component, less severe conditions resulted in better recovery of the combined hemicellulose and cellulosic components.     

Hydrogen generation from ethanol in supercritical water without catalyst

Without oxidizing reagents or catalysts, ethanol was smoothly converted to CH₃CHO and H₂ in supercritical water at 450-500°C. CH₃CHO was further decomposed into CH₄ and CO instead of being oxidized into acetic acid. These features suggest the direct participation of water molecules in the ethanol dehydrogenation.     

玉米秸秆纤维素在亚/超临界乙醇中液化生成酮类化合物的机理探讨

利用间歇式高压反应釜,在反应温度320℃、反应时间60 min条件下,研究乙醇用量对玉米秸秆纤维素液化生成酮类化合物的作用。当乙醇添加量为0时,酮类化合物的产率仅为1.25%。随着乙醇用量由0增加到160 mL,生物油产率不断的升高,酮类化合物产率增加至18.38%,乙醇促进了纤维素液化生成酮类化合物。利用GC/MS和FT-IR对生物油进行了定性分析,结果表明,在亚/超临界乙醇中,酮类化合物主要通过三条路径形成,纤维素脱水形成了含-C=O的活性纤维素,活性纤维素按逆Diels-Alder机理进行开环、脱水、异构化形成了4-羟基-4-甲基-2-戊酮等脂肪族酮类化合物;在乙醇自由基作用下,活性纤维素中C-O-C、C-C等键断裂、开环,形成环戊烯酮等脂环族酮类化合物,环戊烯酮与多种中间产物发生缩合、酯化形成2-甲酸基-1-苯基乙酮等芳香族酮类化合物;在高浓度乙醇自由基作用下,芳香族酮类化合物进一步发生裂解形成酸类、酮类等化合物。根据对酮类化合物生成机理的分析,建立了纤维素在亚/超临界乙醇中液化生成酮类化合物的反应网络。     

Enhanced enzymatic hydrolysis of steam-exploded douglas fir wood by alkali-oxygen post-treatment

Good enzymatic hydrolysis of steam-exploded Douglas fir wood (SEDW) cannot be achieved owing to the very high lignin content (>40%) that remains associated with this substrate. Thus, in this study, we investigated the use of alkali-oxygen treatment as a posttreatment to delignify SEDW and also considered the enzymatic hydrolyzability of the delignified SEDW. The results showed that under optimized conditions of 15% NaOH, 5% consistency, 110°C, and 3h, approx84% of the lignin in SEDW could be removed. The resulting delignified SEDW had good hydrolyzability, and cellulose-to-glucose conversion yields of over 90 and 100% could be achieved within 48 h with 20 and 40 filter paper units/g of cellulose enzyme loadings, respectively. It was also indicated that severe conditions, such as high NaOH concentration and high temperature, should not be utilized in oxygen delignification of SEDW in order to avoid extensive condensation of lignin and significant degradation of cellulose.     

Evaluation of wet oxidation pretreatment for enzymatic hydrolysis of softwood

The wet oxidation pretreatment (water, oxygen, elevated temperature, and pressure) of softwood (Picea abies) was investigated for enhancing enzymatic hydrolysis. The pretreatment was preliminarily optimized. Six different combinations of reaction time, temperature, and pH were applied, and the compositions of solid and liquid fractions were analyzed. The solid fraction after wet oxidation contained 58–64% cellulose, 2–16% hemicellulose, and 24–30% lignin. The pretreatment series gave information about the roles of lignin and hemicellulose in the enzymatic hydrolysis. The temperature of the pretreatment, the residual hemicellulose content of the substrate, and the type of the commercial cellulase preparation used were the most important factors affecting the enzymatic hydrolysis. The highest sugar yield in a 72-h hydrolysis, 79% of theoretical, was obtained using a pretreatment of 200°C for 10 min at neutral pH.     

连续式超临界水反应器中褐煤制氢过程影响因素的研究

建立了煤处理量为1kg/h的连续式超临界水反应装置并实现稳定运行,考察了反应温度（500℃～650℃）、反应压力(20MPa～30MPa)、水煤浆浓度(20%~50％)以及KOH添加量对小龙潭褐煤在超临界水中连续化制氢的影响。实验结果表明,反应进行20min后连续装置达到稳定运行状态。反应温度和KOH添加量是影响超临界水中褐煤制氢的关键因素。随着反应温度从500℃提高到650℃,氢气的体积分数与产率分别由11%和25mL/g增加到29%和110mL/g。添加0.5%KOH可明显提高碳气化率以及氢气的产率,但随着KOH加入量进一步增加,氢气产率增加的幅度减小。随着压力增加,甲烷产率有升高的趋势,氢气产率变化不大,提高水煤浆的浓度,碳气化率降低。     

Effect of pretreatment reagent and hydrogen peroxide on enzymatic hydrolysis of oak in percolation process

The effect of pretreatment reagent and hydrogen peroxide on enzymatic digestibility of oak was investigated to compare pretreatment performance. Pretreatment reagents used were ammonia, sulfuric acid, and water. These solutions were used without or in combination with hydrogen peroxide in the percolation reactor. The reaction was carried out at 170°C for the predetermined reaction time. Ammonia treatment showed the highest delignification but the lowest digestibility and hemicellulose removal among the three treatments. Acid treatment proved to be a very effective method in terms of hemicellulose recovery and cellulose digestibility. Hemicellulose recovery was 65–90% and digestibilities were >90% in the range of 0.01–0.2% acid concentration. In both treatments, hydrogen peroxide had some effect on digestibility but decomposed soluble sugars produced during pretreatment. Unlike ammonia and acid treatments, hydrogen peroxide in water treatment has a certain effect on hemicellulose recovery as well as delignification. At 1.6% hydrogen peroxide concentration, both hemicellulose recovery and digestibility were about 90%, which were almost the same as those of 0.2% sulfuric acid treatment. Also, digestibility was investigated as a function of hemicellulose removal or delignification. It was found that digestibility was more directly related to hemicellulose removal rather than delignification.     

Chemical conversion of various celluloses to glucose and its derivatives in supercritical water

The supercritical water biomass conversion system was designed and developed in our laboratory. The reaction vessel with cellulose sample was treated with this system at supercritical state of water for a designated period (3–105s) under the conditions of a tin bath temperature of 500°C and pressure of 35MPa. The recovered products of hydrolysates were then analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography. The obtained results indicated that a high amount of glucose and levoglucosan can be achieved from both celluloses I and II for 5–10s supercritical treatment, while that from starch for 3–5s treatment. Although this difference could be due to a difference in the molecular structure between cellulose and starch, a difference between celluloses I and II was not significant. Instead, an accessibility of the water towards cellulose molecules seemed to be significant for their chemical conversion. With the longer treatment, amounts of these compounds observed were decreased due to decomposition. Therefore, it may be concluded that, compared with acid hydrolysis or enzymatic saccharification, cellulose may be hydrolyzed to glucose and its derivatives more or less to the same degree as in corn starch under supercritical state. This finding suggests that the supercritical treatment can overcome the difficulties in hydrolyzing cellulose to glucose, found in the acid hydrolysis or enzymatic saccharification techniques.     

Modeling the enzymatic hydrolysis of dilute-acid pretreated Douglas Fir

Glucose yield from the enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose was investigated as a function of cellulase enzyme loading (7–36 filter paper units [FPU]/g cellulose) and solids concentration (7–18% total solids) for up to 72 h on dilute sulfuric-acid pretreated Douglas Fir. The saccharification was performed on whole hydrolysate with no separation or washing of the solids. Enzyme loading had a significant effect on glucose yield; solids concentration had a much smaller effect even at higher glucose concentrations. The data were used to generate an empirical model for glucose yield, and to fit parameters of a cellulose hydrolysis kinetic model. Both models could be used for economic evaluation of a separate hydrolysis and fermentation process.     

Enhancement of enzymatic cellulose hydrolysis using a novel type of bioreactor with intensive stirring induced by electromagnetic field

The use of the intensive mass transfer reactor (IMTR) for enzymatic saccharification of cellulose, where the reaction mixture is intensively stirred by ferromagnetic particles (FMP), enhances the process rate and productivity drastically. The most significant enhancement of the process was observed when microcrystalline cellulose was used as a substrate. A concentration of sugars up to 5% was obtained after 1 h of cellulose hydrolysis using a cellulase activity level of 2 filter paper units (FPU)/mL (20 FPU/g substrate). In the hydrolysis of two types of industrial cellulosic wastes, the enhancement effects were less pronounced. Parameters related to the IMTR design, such as the shape, dimensions, and mass of FMP, as well as the magnetic field strength, strongly affected the process of hydrolysis. Among various kinds of FMP tested, the most efficient were found to be cylindrical particles (0.25 x 4 mm). In general, the hydrolysis rate enhanced when the magnetic field strength increased from 26,000 to 64,000 A/m. An optimal FMP loading existed at each level of the field strength. Hydrolyzates obtained in the IMTR under the action ofTrichoderma reesei andPenicillium verruculosum cellulases contained glucose and cellobiose as soluble products, cellobiose being predominant (> 50%). Only when a high level of extra Β-glucosidase was added to the IMTR (10 CBU/mL), did glucose made up more than 90% of the products. Owing to extreme shear conditions in the IMTR, significant enzyme inactivation took place.     

Combined steam pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis of starch-free wheat fibers

Steam treatment of an industrial process stream, denoted starch-free wheat fiber, was investigated to improve the formation of monomeric sugars in subsequent enzymatic hydrolysis for further bioconversion into ethanol. The solid fraction in the process stream, derived from a combined starch and ethanol factory, was rich in arabinose (21.1%), xylose (30.1%), and glucose (18.6%), in the form of polysaccharides. Various conditions of steam pretreatment (170–220°C for 5–30 min) were evaluated, and their effect was assessed by enzymatic hydrolysis with 2 g of Celluclast + Ultraflo mixture/ 100 g of starch-free fiber (SFF) slurry at 5% dry matter (DM). The highest overall sugar yield for the combined steam pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis, 52g/100 g of DM of SFF, corresponding to 74% of the theoretical, was achieved with pretreatment at 190°C for 10 min followed by enzymatic hydrolysis.     

Extraction and isolation of diphenylheptanes and flavonoids from Alpinia officinarum Hance using supercritical fluid extraction followed by supercritical fluid chromatography

In this paper, an off-line combination method of supercritical fluid extraction and supercritical fluid chromatography was developed for the selective extraction and isolation of diphenylheptanes and flavonoids from Alpinia officinarum Hance. The enrichment of target components was successfully achieved using supercritical fluid extraction with the following conditions (8% ethanol as co-solvent at 45°C and 30 MPa for 30 min). Taking full advantage of the complementarity of supercritical fluid chromatography stationary phases, a two-step preparative supercritical fluid chromatography strategy was constructed. The extract was firstly divided into seven fractions on a Diol column (250 × 20 mm internal diameter, 10 μm) within 8 min by gradient elution increasing from 5% to 20% modifier (methanol) at 55 ml/min and 15 MPa. Then the seven fractions were separated by using a 1-AA or a DEA column (250 × 19 mm internal diameter, 5 μm) at 50 ml/min and 13.5 MPa. This two-step strategy showed superior separation ability for structural analogs. As a result, seven compounds, including four diphenylheptanes and three flavonoids with high purity, were successfully obtained. The developed method is also helpful for the extraction and isolation of other structural analogs of traditional Chinese medicines.     

Enhancing the enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulosic materials using simultaneous ball milling

One of the limiting factors restricting the effective and efficient bioconversion of softwood-derived lignocellulosic residues is the recalcitrance of the substrate following pretreatment. Consequently, the ensuing enzymatic process requires relatively high enzyme loadings to produce monomeric carbohydrates that are readily fermentable by ethanologenic microorganisms. In an attempt to circumvent the need for larger enzyme loadings, a simultaneous physical and enzymatic hydrolysis treatment was evaluated. A ball-mill reactor was used as the digestion vessel, and the extent and rate of hydrolysis were monitored. Concurrently, enzyme adsorption profiles and the rate of conversion during the course of hydrolysis were monitored. α-Cellulose, employed as a model substrate, and SO₂-impregnated steam-exploded Douglas-fir wood chips were assessed as the cellulosic substrates. The softwood-derived substrate was further posttreated with water and hot alkaline hydrogen peroxide to remove >90% of the original lignin. Experiments at different reaction conditions were evaluated, including substrate concentration, enzyme loading, reaction volumes, and number of ball beads employed during mechanical milling. It was apparent that the best conditions for the enzymatic hydrolysis of α-cellulose were attained using a higher number of beads, while the presence of air-liquid interface did not seem to affect the rate of saccharification. Similarly, when employing the lignocellulosic substrate, up to 100% hydrolysis could be achieved with a minimum enzyme loading (10 filter paper units/g of cellulose), at lower substrate concentrations and with a greater number of reaction beads during milling. It was apparent that the combined strategy of simultaneous ball milling and enzymatic hydrolysis could improve the rate of saccharification and/or reduce the enzyme loading required to attain total hydrolysis of the carbohydrate moieties.     

二苯乙烯对秸秆纤维素超临界乙醇裂解转化液化产物的影响

以1,1-二苯乙烯(DPE)为阻聚剂,采用高压反应釜对玉米秸秆纤维素进行超临界乙醇液化,探究DPE浓度(用量)和反应温度对纤维素裂解碎片转化成液化产物的影响。结果表明,DPE浓度增加,挥发分收率降低了25.4%,生物油收率增加了19.9%,收率最高达39.8%,纤维素转化率有所下降;反应温度升高,纤维素转化率迅速增加到85.5%,挥发分也急剧升高,生物油收率最高为34.6%。GC-MS结果显示,生物油主要包括酮类、酯类、烃类等平台化合物以及较多的联苯化合物。DPE浓度过高,结合大量的纤维素裂解片段(乙基、羟基、甲基、氢等)形成联苯类化合物产生较强的空间位阻效应,使得纤维素裂解及活性片段转化成平台化合物的反应受到抑制,两者之间是一个竞争过程;温度升高,乙醇自由基活性增强,其对纤维素裂解的促进作用逐渐超过DPE对纤维素裂解的抑制作用,平台化合物收率有所升高。     

N-叔丁基-α-苯基硝酮对纤维素超临界乙醇液化产物分布的影响

以N-叔丁基-α-苯基硝酮(PBN)为自由基结合剂,采用间歇式高温高压反应釜对玉米秸秆纤维素进行超临界乙醇液化,考察PBN用量(浓度)和反应温度(活性)对纤维素液化产物及生物油中主要化合物分布的影响。结果表明,在320℃,仅有超临界乙醇作用,生物油收率为37.17%,挥发分收率高达50.08%;随着PBN用量增加到0.4 g,生物油收率最高提升至48.35%,挥发分最低下降到35.65%。在超临界乙醇和PBN作用下,随着反应温度从250℃升高至340℃,纤维素转化率从23.10%急剧增加至88.92%,生物油收率从19.18%上升到最高48.35%(320℃)后略有下降,挥发分也从6.03%急剧上升至50.28%。GC-M S结果显示,酯类、酮类、烃类、醇类、酸类及苯类化合物是生物油的主要成分,各组分的最高相对含量分别为27.91%、15.77%、13.44%、12.42%、16.07%、19.81%。实验结果证实了PBN对纤维素超临界乙醇液化产物及生物油组分分布产生了较明显的影响,尤其能通过与含苯基、乙基等活性碎片结合促进挥发分与生物油之间的转化,且PBN用量及液化温度的改变可以促使生物油中主要化合物发生不同程度的相互转化。     

超临界水中煤焦油沥青轻质化的实验研究

采用间歇超临界水（supercritical water, SCW）反应器,考察了反应温度（400℃~480℃）、停留时间(1 min~80 min)和反应压力（25 MPa~40 MPa）对煤焦油沥青轻质化的影响。与常压N2热解相比,煤焦油沥青在SCW中反应后产物中的轻油质量分数高,残焦质量分数低,表明SCW可以促进煤焦油沥青的轻质化反应进行并抑制缩合反应。沥青质是煤焦油沥青在SCW中发生反应的主要组分。在440 ℃和34 MPa时反应20 min,产物中轻油的质量分数可达原料的两倍,说明煤焦油沥青在SCW中可以发生明显轻质化反应。与温度相比,压力和停留时间的影响相对较小。     

XPS analysis and combustibility of residues from two coals extraction with sub-and supercritical water

Two kinds of residues, obtained from extraction of one weakly reductive coal, Shenfu-Dongsheng coal (SD), and one reductive coal, Pingshuo coal (PS), with sub- and supercritical water on a semi-continuous apparatus, were characterized by calorific value analysis and XPS analysis, and the combustion behaviors of residues were investigated by thermogravimetric analysis. The results show that the residues have higher calorific value than raw coal samples, and SD residue has higher calorific value than PS residue. C-C, C-O and pyridinic nitrogen, pyrrolic nitrogen are the dominant form of C, O and N on the surface of raw coal samples and their extraction residues. The combustion behaviors of extraction residues show that the SD residue is more reactive and more easily burned than PS residue.