Robert Hare's Theory of Galvanism: A Study of Heat and Electricity in Early Nineteenth-Century American Chemistry

As a professor of chemistry at the University of Pennsylvania, Robert Hare actively shaped early American science. He participated in a large network of scholars, including Joseph Henry, François Arago, and Jacob Berzelius, and experimented with and wrote extensively about electricity and its associated chemical and thermal phenomena. In the early nineteenth century, prominent chemists such as Berzelius and Humphry Davy proclaimed that a revolution had occurred in chemistry through electrical research. Examining Robert Hare’s contributions to this discourse, this paper analyzes how Hare’s study of electricity and the caloric theory of heat led him to propose a new theory of galvanism. It also examines the reception of Hare’s work in America and Great Britain, highlighting the contributions of early American chemists to the development of electrochemistry.     

Nehemiah Grew (1641–1712) and the Saline Chymistry of Plants

Abstract

In a series of lectures appended to his magisterial Anatomy of Plants (1682), Nehemiah Grew (1641–1712) explained the results of his own research into the saline chemistry of plants, following an established tradition in early modern chemistry. Members of the Royal Society such as Daniel Coxe were heavily involved in researching salt chemistry in the latter part of the seventeenth century, analysing the role of salts in spa waters, physiology, and as a fundamental element in iatrochemistry. Such researches of Royal Society members were often based upon the chemistry of Johann Van Helmont (1577–1634). As this paper will demonstrate, Grew's work drew from his microscopic research to elaborate and question some of Coxe's and hence Van Helmont's ideas about the principles of matter. Grew also used the results of his chemical research to draw conclusions about plant structure and colour, and applied his results to other areas in natural history such as meteorology, illustrating that chemistry was the basic analytical tool for seventeenth-century investigators of anatomy and natural history.     

Cellulose: a random walk along its historical path

Cellulose as a material has been widely used for centuries in all kinds of practical applications. However, its chemical composition, structure and morphology were also unknown for centuries. The modern history of cellulose chemistry actually began in 1837 when Anselme Payen chemically identified cellulose from plants. Since then, the establishment of its chemical and physical structures has undergone multitudinous periods of struggle. Until the early 1920s, many scientists believed that cellulose was made up of a few small molecules of glucose or cellobiose. Very few scientists accepted the premiss that it was a polymer. The controversial debates were continued for over ten years. Eventually, substantial experimental data provided proof that cellulose is a covalently linked, high-molecular-weight macromolecule. This fact also provided the foundation for the establishment of polymer science. Some of the historical development of chemistry and structures are briefly reviewed, and recent approaches to studying cellulose structures with new instrumentation are discussed.     

Vom Teerfarbstoff zum Insektizid

Wilhelm von Miller, professor of chemistry in Munich, invented the first synthetic organic insecticide called “Antinonnin” which the Bayer Company of Elberfeld, Germany, brought onto the market in 1892. Its active principle was the potassium salt of 4,6‐dinitro‐o‐cresol (DNOC). The compound, already synthesized in the late 1860's, was used in the beginning as a yellow textile dye. After the invention of azo dyes, the substance started being used as food‐colorant and later also as an insecticide, fungicide, herbicide and defoliant. Until the early 1970's it was especially popular for the winter treatment of orchards as a larvicide and ovicide. The paper connects the biographical history of Wilhelm von Miller with a discussion of the early history of plant protection in Germany.     

Another scientific practice separating chemistry from physics: thought experiments

Thought experiments in the history of science display a striking asymmetry between chemistry and physics, namely that chemistry seems to lack well-known examples, whereas physics presents many famous examples. This asymmetry, I argue, is not independent data concerning the chemistry/physics distinction. The laws of chemistry such as the periodic table are incurably special, in that they make testable predictions only for a very restricted range of physical conditions in the universe which are necessarily conditioned by the contingences of chemical investigation. The argument depends on how ‚thought experiment’ is construed. Here, several recent accounts of thought experiments are surveyed to help formulate what I call ‚crucial’ thought experiments. These have a historical role in helping to judge between hypotheses in physics, but are not helpful in chemistry past or present.     

The emerging utility of ketenes in polymer chemistry

The continued evolution of functional materials that contribute to pressing societal challenges requires the development of powerful synthetic methodologies in polymer systems. Since their discovery by Staudinger in the early 20th century, the unique chemistry of ketenes have fascinated synthetic chemists and been the driver of revolutionary applications in photolithography, medicinal chemistry, and commodity materials. The versatile chemistry of ketenes, specifically their ability to act as an electrophile and/or undergo cycloaddition reactions, has recently been shown to provide a powerful platform for the design of next‐generation materials. This Highlight focuses on the history of ketenes in materials science and their recent renaissance in polymer chemistry, with specific focus being given to methodologies that provide reliable access to this important functional group in polymer systems. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Polym. Sci., Part A: Polym. Chem. 2013 , 51, 3769–3782     

复杂化学体系的分子模拟研究——2013年诺贝尔化学奖浅析

随着化学科学研究水平的日益提高,人们对物质世界的分子水平的理解也在逐步加深。化学研究中对原理性理解的要求越来越高,也要求越来越准确的定量研究。化学传统上以实验为主,而现代化学对理论具有了强烈依赖性。理论化学的发展取得了巨大进步,成为化学学科的一个重要组成部分。理论与计算化学不但帮助解释实验结果,更提供对实验观察的预言和对材料药物等的合理设计。通过与统计力学和量子力学的紧密结合,在现代计算机技术的支持下分子模拟在化学、材料、生物等学科中得到广泛应用,处理多尺度实际体系的能力越来越强,具有非常广阔的发展前景。但分子模拟作为一个研究手段还需要大力发展,以提高其普适性,使之具有更坚实的理论基础,同时更加系统化和实用化。     

The role of coordination chemistry in the development of target-specific radiopharmaceuticals

There is a great current interest in developing target-specific radiopharmaceuticals for early detection of diseases and radiotherapy of cancers. This critical review will focus on the role of coordination chemistry in the development of target-specific radiopharmaceuticals. It will also discuss the recent development in technetium, copper, gallium, indium, yttrium and lanthanide chemistry, as well as analytical tools for quality control and characterization of radiolabeled small biomolecules (159 references).     

Objects of inquiry in classical chemistry: material substances

I argue in the paper that classical chemistry is a science predominantly concerned with material substances, both useful materials and pure chemical substances restricted to scientific laboratory studies. The central epistemological and methodological status of material substances corresponds with the material productivity of classical chemistry and its way of producing experimental traces. I further argue that chemist??s ??pure substances?? have a history, conceptually and materially, and I follow their conceptual history from the Paracelsian concept of purity to the modern concept of pure stoichiometric compounds. The history of the concept of ??pure substances?? shows that modern chemists?? concept of purity abstracted from usefulness rather than being opposed to it. Thus modern chemists?? interest in pure chemical substances does not presuppose a concept of pure science.     

From conception to realization: an historial account of graphene and some perspectives for its future

There has been an intense surge in interest in graphene during recent years. However, graphene-like materials derived from graphite oxide were reported in 1962, and related chemical modifications of graphite were described as early as 1840. In this detailed account of the fascinating development of the synthesis and characterization of graphene, we hope to demonstrate that the rich history of graphene chemistry laid the foundation for the exciting research that continues to this day. Important challenges remain, however; many with great technological relevance.     

Mass spectrometry in newborn and metabolic screening: historical perspective and future directions

The growth of mass spectrometry (MS) in clinical chemistry has primarily occurred in two areas: the traditional clinical chemistry areas of toxicology and therapeutic drug monitoring and more recent, human genetics and metabolism, specifically inherited disorders of intermediary metabolism and newborn screening. Capillary gas chromatography and electrospray tandem MS are the two most common applications used to detect metabolic disease in screening, diagnostics and disease monitoring of treated patients. A few drops of blood from several million newborn infants are screened annually throughout the world making this the largest application of MS in medicine. Understanding the technique, how it grew from a few dozen samples per week in the early 1990s to increasing daily volume today will provide important information for new tests that either expand newborn screening or screening in other areas of metabolism and endocrinology. There are numerous challenges to the further expansion of MS in clinical chemistry but also many new opportunities in closely related applications. The model of newborn screening and MS in medicine may be useful in developing other applications that go beyond newborns and inherited metabolic disease. As MS continues to expand in clinical chemistry, it is clear that two features will drive its success. These features are excellent selectivity and multiple analyte or profile analysis; features recognized in the 1950s and remain true today. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

由早餐争论引发的对“基本营养物质”的教学思考

由早餐建议引发的争论反思基本营养物质在高中必修阶段的教学。从课标要求和科学史、能力培养和学习阶段特点等角度,分析了教学价值,设计了突出培养“化学指导生活”意识的高中必修阶段基本营养物质的教学。以“早餐吃点什么”为主题,围绕典型物质,引导学生从物质的作用和人体的需求两方面、多角度地建立、完善和巩固评价早餐的思路,挖掘了学科知识的思维培养价值和育人功能。     

非均匀体系介电研究的现状与展望*

用介电谱方法讨论化学中的非均匀体系是近十几年发展起来的交叉性新领域, 它在分散体系、高分子膜以及生物细胞体系的研究中占有重要地位。本文从理论和应用两方面综述该领域的发展过程及研究现状, 并结合实例阐述了构造和介电弛豫模式的关系以及该方法的特点。在对遗留问题和最新进展给予评述性讨论的同时, 指出了进一步的研究方向。     

Electron Transfer Reactions in Chemistry: Theory and Experiment (Nobel Lecture)

Since the late 1940s, the field of electron transfer processes has grown enormously, both in chemistry and biology. The development of the field, experimentally and theoretically, as well as its relation to the study of other kinds of chemical reactions, presents to us an intriguing history, one in which many threads have been brought together. In this lecture, some history, recent trends, and my own involvement in this research are described.     

关于我国生物无机化学发展战略的一点思考

本文简要地回顾了国际生物无机化学发展的历史过程、当前的研究热点以及我国生物无机化学研究已取得的成就.在此基础上,探讨了我国生物无机化学的进一步发展策略和方向.     

从高分子化学与衣食住行到高科技发展

本文围绕国际化学年的主题,介绍高分子科学与人类衣食住行、国民经济各个方面的密切关系,结合高分子发展历程、高分子产业现状和高分子学科前沿与发展趋势,概述了高分子科学与技术的基本情况。     

The Corundum Stone and Crystallographic Chemistry*

This article presents a detailed history and exegesis of the 1798 paper of Charles Greville and Jacques-Louis Count de Bournon, “On the Corundum Stone from Asia.” This was the first published argument to establish that the mineral corundum was related to, or identical with, the ruby and the sapphire. It was also the first time that the science of crystallography, recently developed in France, was publically introduced to a British scientific audience. René Just Haüy’s theory of the three-dimensional structure of minerals proposed a new kind of extension of chemistry into the solid state. The story of corundum illustrates the new and sophisticated mineralogy that had emerged in the late eighteenth century and how an increasingly global natural history relied upon extended networks of trade and empire. It shows also how mineralogical debates had begun to move beyond the private and restricted milieux of mining schools and wealthy collectors and into more public scientific fora.     

理论化学在中国的发展

本文回顾1949年以来,我国理论化学的发展历史.全文始于“荒漠渐成绿洲”的总体概括,进入主体全面的论述.按1978年划分为前、后两期.前期为学科的成长成熟期,以创业人及少数从业者的科教活动为中心,后期为学科的繁荣期,以本学科现阶段中青年精英创造佳绩、进入学科主流领域为中心.按时间进程将前后期最有代表性的10个方面研究成...     

A Chemical Reaction to the Historiography of Biology

This article examines the often-overlooked role of chemical ideas and practices in the history of modern biology. The first section analyses how the conventional histories of the life sciences have, through the twentieth century, come to focus nearly exclusively on evolutionary theory and genetics, and why this storyline is inadequate. The second section elaborates on what the restricted neo-Darwinian history of biology misses, noting a variety of episodes in the history of biology that relied on developments in – or tools from – chemistry, including an example from the author’s own work. The diverse ways in which biologists have used chemical approaches often relate to the concrete, infrastructural side of research; a more inclusive history thus also connects to a historiography of materials and objects in science.     

Historical demonstration experiments in Analytical Chemistry

Some examples of the use of lecture demonstration throughout the early history of chemistry are presented with examples chosen from Analytical Chemistry. In order to limit this vast subject, mainly Scandinavian sources have been used. This is rather natural as the early history of Analytical Chemistry is so much dominated by the works of the Swedish chemist Torbern Bergman. An interesting source at early lecture experiments are the books on natural magic, which were very popular in the 17 th and 18 th centuries. These books contain recipes for household remedies mingled with scientific observations. From the 18 th century most of the examples have been taken from Torbern Bergman’s works. Received: 15 January 1996 / Accepted: 29 January 1996