Comparison of In Vivo Optical Systems for Bioluminescence and Fluorescence Imaging

In vivo optical imaging has become a popular tool in animal laboratories. Currently, many in vivo optical imaging systems are available on the market, which often makes it difficult for research groups to decide which system fits their needs best. In this work we compared different commercially available systems, which can measure both bioluminescent and fluorescent light. The systems were tested for their bioluminescent and fluorescent sensitivity both in vitro and in vivo. The IVIS Lumina II was found to be most sensitive for bioluminescence imaging, with the Photon Imager a close second. Contrary, the Kodak system was, in vitro, the most sensitive system for fluorescence imaging. In vivo, the fluorescence sensitivity of the systems was similar. Finally, we examined the added value of spectral unmixing algorithms for in vivo optical imaging and demonstrated that spectral unmixing resulted in at least a doubling of the in vivo sensitivity. Additionally, spectral unmixing also enabled separate imaging of dyes with overlapping spectra which were, without spectral unmixing, not distinguishable.     

三维荧光指纹技术在牛乳兽药残留检测与受热程度判别中的应用研究

牛乳作为一种营养全面的理想食物,已成为人们日常生活中不可或缺的一部分,与此同时人们也越来越关注乳制品的品质,因此快速、灵敏的检测方法的开发和使用显得尤为重要。基于三维荧光指纹技术,建立了一种牛乳品质检测与评价的新方法,该方法可以通过三维荧光特征图谱,得到相对应的牛乳成分信息。和常规的荧光方法相比,三维荧光法可以提供更丰富,更全面的物质信息。首先根据牛乳在不同实验条件影响下荧光强度的变化及图谱的改变,确定了最佳的预处理条件,接着分别对牛乳抗生素残留以及受热程度的判别进行了研究。对于兽药残留分析,可以检测出牛乳中含量在0.5 mg·L-1以上的新霉素;对于牛乳受热程度判分析,利用三维荧光技术结合平行因子法(PARAFAC)对生鲜乳、巴氏杀菌乳及UHT灭菌乳的定性判别,当组分数为3时,中心连续系数可达97.63%。因此,三维荧光指纹技术具有快速准确的检测牛乳品质的潜力。     

基于上/下转换发光的新型比率荧光温度探针

温度的可视化实时监测,一直都是科学研究的重点方向。荧光传感是一种具有高灵敏度、快速响应、可视化等优点的半侵入式测温方法,在生物医药等领域已被广泛应用。然而,传统荧光探针容易受到外界条件波动的影响而产生误差。为解决这一问题,可以采用两组荧光检测信号构建比率型荧光探针,通过两组信号的相互校准提高检测的准确性。传统的比率荧光温度探针大多基于下转换荧光发射,这类探针通常由短波长光激发,对生物组织穿透性差且有一定伤害,还会受到生物组织自发荧光的干扰。频率上转换是由长波长激发,短波长发射的一种光致发光现象,由其构建的荧光探针可以克服传统下转换荧光探针的上述缺点。而基于三线态-三线态湮灭(TTA)机理的频率上转换发光体系,由光敏剂和湮灭剂的双分子体系共同构成,因而自身就同时具有上/下转换的发光特性,满足了构建比率型荧光探针的条件。然而目前,基于TTA上转换体系的比率型荧光温度探针还鲜见报导,已报导的工作中仍需要另外添加参比探针。仅通过TTA双分子体系构建的上/下转换比率型荧光温度探针仍然是一大挑战。本文通过将传统的TTA上转换体系(PdOEP/DPA)负载于由温敏型两亲性聚合物Pluronic-F127组装形成的胶束中,形成上转换纳米胶束温度探针。随着温度的升高,聚合物亲水链段水溶性下降,向胶束核心位置收缩,导致负载上转换分子的胶束内部空间体积减小,TTA分子间碰撞概率增大,上转换效率提高,上转换发光的强度也随之提高;与此同时,光敏剂的下转换磷光发射也会发生小幅度的下降。由此上/下转换两组荧光信号构成的比率荧光,可成功实现25~60 ℃范围内对温度的线性检测,并可通过肉眼观察到体系发光由紫红色向蓝紫色的转变,检测结果的重复性良好。TTA上转换分子通过被温敏聚合物胶束的包覆,既解决了在实际应用中探针水溶性差,以及上转换发光易被氧气淬灭的问题,还为上转换体系提供了温敏性质,实现了上转换发光对温度的精确响应。这种基于上转换纳米胶束的比率型荧光温度探针不仅制备方法简单,具有良好的生物相容性,且检测灵敏度高,可以人眼识别,无需外加参比,对生物体内温度在线监测的实现具有重要意义。     

Confocal fluorescence lifetime imaging of free calcium in single cells

Ca²⁺ concentrations in biological cells are widely studied with fluorescent probes. The probes have a high selectivity for free calcium and exhibit marked changes in their photophysical properties upon binding. The differences in the fluorescent lifetime of the probes can now be used as a contrast mechanism for imaging purposes. This technique can be further exploited for the quantitative determination of ion concentrations within the cells. We describe the use of a fast fluorescence lifetime imaging method in combination with a standard confocal laser scanning microscope for the determination of Ca²⁺ concentrations in single rat cardiac myocytes using the intensity probe Calcium Green.     

Non-specific interactions of CdTe/Cds Quantum Dots with human blood mononuclear cells

In order to study biological events, researchers commonly use methods based on fluorescence. These techniques generally use fluorescent probes, commonly small organic molecules or fluorescent proteins. However, these probes still present some drawbacks, limiting the detection. Semiconductor nanocrystals - Quantum Dots (QDs) - have emerged as an alternative tool to conventional fluorescent dyes in biological detection due to its topping properties - wide absorption cross section, brightness and high photostability. Some questions have emerged about the use of QDs for biological applications. Here, we use optical tools to study non-specific interactions between aqueous synthesized QDs and peripheral blood mononuclear cells. By fluorescence microscopy we observed that bare QDs can label cell membrane in live cells and also label intracellular compartments in artificially permeabilized cells, indicating that non-specific labeling of sub-structures inside the cells must be considered when investigating an internal target by specific conjugation. Since fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry are complementary techniques (fluorescence microscopy provides a morphological image of a few samples and flow cytometry is a powerful technique to quantify biological events in a large number of cells), in this work we also used flow cytometry to investigate non-specific labeling. Moreover, by using optical tweezers, we observed that, after QDs incubation, zeta potentials in live cells changed to a less negative value, which may indicate that oxidative adverse effects were caused by QDs to the cells.     

Study on Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using dsDNA as Template and Detection of GSH

In this work, silver nanoparticles are synthesized using a simple and sensitive method by using double-stranded DNA (dsDNA-Ag NPs) as a template. The prepared dsDNA-Ag NPs are characterized by fluorescence spectroscopy analysis, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis, and transmission electron microscopy analysis. The excitation wavelength of the prepared silver nanoparticles is 295 nm, the emission wavelength is 377 nm, the average particle size is 11.2 nm, and the dispersion is uniform with pleasurable stability. The nanomaterials are used as fluorescent probes to detect glutathione (GSH). After adding glutathione to the dsDNA-Ag NPs fluorescent probes, the fluorescence of dsDNA-Ag NPs is burst due to electron transfer and S Ag bond generation, and the linear range of detection concentration is 0–90 mm with a detection limit of 0.37 mm .     

Synthesis of Fluorescent Silica Nanoparticles and Their Applications as Fluorescence Probes

This paper presents the synthesis of organic dye molecules embedded silica nanoparticles by Stöber method and their applications as fluorescence probes in cell imaging. By modifying the surface of fluorescent silica nanoparticles (FSNs) with amino, biologically functionalized and monodisperse FSNs can be obtained. In this work, FSNs were conjugated with monoclonal anti-Carcinoembryonic Antigen (anti-CEA) antibody via covalent binding. The antibody-conjugated FSNs can be used to label the SPCA-1 cells successfully, demonstrating that the application of FSNs as fluorescence probes in fluorescence imaging and bioassay would be feasible.     

The New Fluorescent Membrane Probe Ahba: A Comparative Study with the Largely Used Laurdan

Lipid bilayers have been largely used as model systems for biological membranes. Hence, their structures, and alterations caused on them by biological active molecules, have been the subject of many studies. Accordingly, fluorescent probes incorporated into lipid bilayers have been extensively used for characterizing lipid bilayer fluidity and/or polarity. However, for the proper analysis of the alterations undergone by a membrane, a comprehensive knowledge of the fluorescent properties of the probe is fundamental. Therefore, the present work compares fluorescent properties of a relative new fluorescent membrane probe, 2-amino-N-hexadecyl-benzamide (Ahba), with the largely used probe 6-dodecanoyl-N,N-dimethyl-2-naphthylamine (Laurdan), using both static and time resolved fluorescence. Both Ahba and Laurdan have the fluorescent moiety close to the bilayer surface; Ahba has a rather small fluorescent moiety, which was shown to be very sensitive to the bilayer surface pH. The main goal was to point out the fluorescent properties of each probe that are most sensitive to structural alterations on a lipid bilayer. The two probes were incorporated into bilayers of the well-studied zwitterionic lipid dimyristoyl phosphatidylcholine (DMPC), which exhibits a gel-fluid transition around 23 °C. The system was monitored between 5 and 50 °C, hence allowing the study of the two different lipid structures, the gel and fluid bilayer phases, and the transition between them. As it is known, the fluorescent emission spectrum of Laurdan is highly sensitive to the bilayer gel-fluid transition, whereas the Ahba fluorescence spectrum was found to be insensitive to changes in bilayer structure and polarity, which are known to happen at the gel-fluid transition. However, both probes monitor the bilayer gel-fluid transition through fluorescence anisotropy measurements. With time-resolved fluorescence, it was possible to show that bilayer structural variations can be monitored by Laurdan excited state lifetimes changes, whereas Ahba lifetimes were found to be insensitive to bilayer structural modifications. Through anisotropy time decay measurements, both probes could monitor structural bilayer changes, but the limiting anisotropy was found to be a better parameter than the rotational correlation time. It is interesting to have in mind that the relatively small fluorophore of Ahba (o-Abz) could possibly be bound to a phospholipid hydrocarbon chain, not disturbing much the bilayer packing and being a sensitive probe for the bilayer core.     

Quantification of fluorescent molecules in heterogeneous media by use of the fluorescence decay amplitude analysis

In heterogeneous media, including biological objects, fluorescent molecules of one kind often exist as a mixture of species with different fluorescence parameters. Fractional concentrations of these species can be measured by analyzing their fluorescence decay amplitudes. The amplitudes are linear functions of concentrations of actually fluorescent molecules, i.e., molecules whose fluorescence decay can be measured. Other (quenched) molecules do not influence these amplitudes. The other parameter that has to be measured to calculate these concentrations is the radiative rate constant. The parameter can be excluded by comparison of decay amplitudes of the sample studied and a standard. The comparison should be made taking into account the dependence of the radiation rates on emision wavelength. The method has been tested in experiments with the fluorescent probe 3-methoxybenzanthrone (MBA) bound with phosphatidylcholine bilayer membranes. The probe has a complex fluorescence decay in these membranes. The decay can be described as two exponentials, with decay times of 2 and 12 ns and a blue-shifted fluorescence spectrum of the short-life component as compared with long-life one. The shift was used to correct calculated radiative rate values. After this, about 100% of the MBA molecules were found to be fluorescent in these membranes. Thus, this approach can be used to measure absolute concentrations of subpopulations of fluorescent molecules in heterogeneous biological objects.     

某半合成青霉素制药废水的水质指纹特性

近年来,地表水中时有抗生素检出,且浓度较高,因此加强抗生素废水的监管势在必行。三维荧光技术快速、简便且灵敏度高,可以反映有机物组成,其光谱被称为水质指纹。选取某典型半合成青霉素制药废水进行水质指纹特性研究。该废水共有4个主要水纹峰,分别位于激发波长/发射波长为360/445,255/445,275/305和230/300 nm附近。在一定浓度范围内,各峰强度与污染物浓度呈现良好的线性关系。该废水的两个峰275/305和230/300 nm可能源于产品中间体左旋对羟基苯甘氨酸邓钾盐、产品阿莫西林和水解产物左旋对羟基苯甘氨酸等。pH对水质指纹有明显影响,这显示出某些荧光污染物可能具有酸碱基团。水质指纹能够用于该种抗生素制药废水的监测。     

Synthesis,Spectroscopic Properties,and Biological Applications of Eight Novel Chlorinated Fluorescent Proteins-labeling Probes

Eight novel chlorinated fluorescent proteins-labeling probes with a linker and reactive group were prepared in 7 steps by the reaction of chlorinated resorcinols with 3, 6-dichloro-4-carboxyphthalic anhydride in the presence of methanesulfonic acid. Structures of target compounds and intermediates were determined via IR, MS, ¹H NMR and element analysis. The spectral properties of the chlorinated fluoresceins were studied. These fluorescent probes showed absorbance peaks at 508–536 nm and fluorescence peaks at 524–550 nm. It was found that they have absorption and emission maxima at long wavelengths and high fluorescence quantum yields. Emission spectra of chlorinated fluoresceins shifted towards long wavelength with increase in chlorine. The probes were used for fluorescence imaging of cells in order to investigate whether they can conjugate to cells. The fluorescence imaging of living cells showed that they were localized in cell nucleus. However, they were localized in cytosol of chemically fixed cells. These probes will be useful reagents for the preparation of stable fluorescent conjugates.     

Computational design of ratiometric two-photon fluorescent Zn2+ probes based on quinoline and di-2-picolylamine moieties

To improve two-photon absorption (TPA) response of a newly synthesized probe, a series of ratiometric two-photon fluorescent Zn²⁺ sensors based on quinoline and DPA moieties have been designed. The one-photon absorption, TPA, and emission properties of the experimental and designed probes before and after coordination with Zn²⁺ are investigated employing the density functional theory in combination with response functions. The design consists of two levels. In the first level of design, five probes are constructed through using several electron acceptors or donors to increase accepting or donating ability of the fluorophores. It shows that all the designed probes have stronger TPA intensities at longer wavelengths with respect to the experimental probe because of the increased intra-molecular charge transfer. Moreover, it is found that the probe 4 built by adding an acyl unit has the largest TPA cross section among the designed structures due to the form of longer conjugated length and more linear backbone. One dimethylamino terminal attached along the skeleton can improve TPA intensity more efficiently than two side amino groups. Therefore, in the second level of design, a new probe 7 is formed by both an acyl unit and a dimethylamino terminal. It exhibits that the TPA cross sections of probe 7 and its zinc complex increase dramatically. Furthermore, the fluorescence quantum yields of the designed probes 4 and 7 are calculated in a new way, which makes use of the relation between the computed difference of dipole moment and the measured fluorescence quantum yield. The result shows that our design also improves the fluorescence quantum yield considerably. All in all, the designed probes 4 and 7 not only possess enhanced TPA intensities but also have large differences of emission wavelength upon Zn²⁺ coordination and strong fluorescence intensity, which demonstrates that they are potential ratiometric two-photon fluorescent probes.     

微阵列芯片的荧光光漂白特性

微阵列技术为大量基因表达水平的同时监控提供了一种高效的手段。随着微阵列芯片朝着小型化、高通量和弱信号方向发展,荧光检测技术以其易寻址和高灵敏度等优势越来越受到世人关注。在微阵列技术中,人们通过检测微阵列芯片上不同位置斑点的荧光信号强度,可以得知微阵列芯片不同位置固定的已知序列探针与荧光染料标记的cDNA样品的杂交情况。对一张微阵列芯片多次扫描后,荧光染料发生光漂白,荧光强度发生衰减变化,它将为微阵列的数据分析带来误差。使用荧光浓度梯度微阵列芯片研究了芯片经多次扫描后荧光斑点强度的衰减情况,通过拟合相同荧光斑点经多次重复扫描后得到的信号强度,得到了荧光斑点强度按指数形式衰减的规律,并在此基础上研究了荧光斑点强度衰减指数模型中的参数与荧光斑点初始浓度的关系,为进行微阵列芯片数据光漂白误差修正提供了实验依据。     

Polar Plot Representation for Frequency-Domain Analysis of Fluorescence Lifetimes

We present applications of polar plots for analyzing fluorescence lifetime data acquired in the frequency domain. This graphical, analytical method is especially useful for rapid FLIM measurements. The usual method for sorting out and determining the underlying lifetime components from a complex fluorescence signal is to carry out the measurement at multiple frequencies. When it is not possible to measure at more than one frequency, such as rapid lifetime imaging, specific features of the polar plot analysis yield valuable information, and provide a diagnostic visualization of the participating fluorescent species underlying a complex lifetime distributions. Data are presented where this polar plot presentation is useful to derive valuable, unique information about the underlying component distributions. We also discuss artifacts of photolysis and how this method can also be applied to samples where each fluorescence species shows a continuous distribution of lifetimes. Polar plots of frequency-domain data are commonly used for analysis of dielectric relaxation experiments (Cole–Cole plots), which have proved to be exceptionally useful in that field for decades. We compare this analytical tool that is well developed and extensively used in dielectric relaxation and chemical kinetics to fluorescence measurements.     

中药白芨水浸液的荧光光谱研究

报道了白芨沸水浸取液的三维荧光光谱和紫外吸收光谱。在三维荧光光谱图中出现3个荧光峰,分别位于λ_ex/λ_em＝227/299 nm,271/299 nm和258/ 389 nm。其中前2个荧光峰具有相同的发射波长,是由同一种荧光组分产生的,后1个荧光峰是由另外一种荧光组分产生的。三维荧光光谱具有特征性,可以用于白芨的定性鉴别。两种荧光组分的发射波长相距90 nm,可以不经分离而分别测量。在稀溶液条件下,两种组分的荧光强度与浓度之间都存在良好的线性关系,据此可以对两种组分进行定量分析。在pH 1.5～12.5范围内改变溶液的pH值时,两种组分的荧光强度有明显改变,表明两种组分的分子结构中存在可以离解的质子。     

A Simple Model-Free Method for Direct Assessment of Fluorescent Ligand Binding by Linear Spectral Summation

Fluorescent tagged ligands are commonly used to determine binding to proteins. However, bound and free ligand concentrations are not directly determined. Instead the response in a fluorescent ligand titration experiment is considered to be proportional to the extent of binding and, therefore, the maximum value of binding is scaled to the total protein concentration. Here, a simple model-free method is presented to be performed in two steps. In the first step, normalized bound and free spectra of the ligand are determined. In the second step, these spectra are used to fit composite spectra as the sum of individual components or linear spectral summation. Using linear spectral summation, free and bound 1-Anilinonaphthalene-8-Sulfonic Acid (ANS) fluorescent ligand concentrations are directly calculated to determine ANS binding to tear lipocalin (TL), an archetypical ligand binding protein. Error analysis shows that the parameters that determine bound and free ligand concentrations were recovered with high certainty. The linear spectral summation method is feasible when fluorescence intensity is accompanied by a spectral shift upon protein binding. Computer simulations of the experiments of ANS binding to TL indicate that the method is feasible when the fluorescence spectral shift between bound and free forms of the ligand is just 8 nm. Ligands tagged with environmentally sensitive fluorescent dyes, e.g., dansyl chromophore, are particularly suitable for this method.

Continuous Fluorescence Depletion Anisotropy Measurement of Protein Rotation

Protein rotation in viscous environments can be measured by fluorescence depletion anisotropy (FDA) which combines long lifetimes of chromophore triplet states with the sensitivity of fluorescence excitation and detection. FDA achieves sensitivity well beyond that attainable by the more common technique of time-resolved phosphorescence anisotropy (TPA). We have now combined benefits of both time-domain and frequency-domain FDA into a single continuous technique (CFDA). Intensity and polarization of a single laser beam are modulated continuously according to a complex, repeating waveform. Fluorescence signals excited from triplet-forming fluorescent probes are digitized over recurring waveform periods by a high-speed signal averager. CFDA experiments typically involve substantial ground state depletion. Thus signals, unlike those of TPA, are not linear in the exciting light intensity and simple data analysis based on such linearity is not appropriate. An exact solution of the coupled diffusion and triplet production/decay equation describing CFDA within individual data points has been combined with simulated annealing optimization to extract triplet and anisotropy decay kinetics from experimental data. Related calculations compare possible excitation waveforms with respect to rotational information provided per fluorescence photon. We present CFDA results for the model system of eosin conjugates of carbonic anhydrase, BSA and immunoglobulin G in 90% glycerol at various temperatures and initial cellular results on eosin-IgE bound to 2H3 cell Type I Fcε receptors. We explore how CFDA reflects rotational parameters of heterogeneous systems and discuss challenges of extending this method to single cell microscopic measurements.     

荧光成像及手性特异性生物识别

癌症是威胁人类健康的重大疾病之一,实现早查早治是降低癌症死亡率的重要手段。目前在癌症的众多识别方式中,荧光检测凭借无创伤、检测快和可视化等优点受到了持续关注。文章对荧光探针靶向识别肿瘤的研究新进展进行了综述;对赋予荧光探针靶向性的叶酸(FA)和叶酸受体(FR)介导研究进展进行了介绍和深入分析。叶酸受体是癌细胞表面过量表达的特有物质,利用叶酸和叶酸受体特异性结合的特点,叶酸对荧光探针分子进行修饰可赋予荧光探针识别癌细胞的靶向性。叶酸受体有4种亚型（FRα,FRβ,FRγ和FRδ）,前两者FRα和FRβ因分别在癌细胞和炎症巨噬细胞表面过量表达而备受关注,FRα和FRβ约有70%的同源性,两者均具有能与叶酸结合的特性,造成了荧光探针分子在生物识别过程中难以区分癌细胞和炎症巨噬细胞的弱势;针对叶酸修饰荧光探针难以区分叶酸受体亚型造成癌细胞和炎症巨噬细胞混淆问题的结构性缺陷,分析了两种叶酸受体亚型结构具有的手性区别特征：FRα和FRβ主要区别位于三个末端未翻译区,有三种不同手性特征的氨基酸形成一个用来包结叶酸分子的三角空腔,分别固定在氨基酸堆积体节点上的三种氨基酸形成了不同手性特性的区域性“手性空间”。FRα和FRβ本身的结构对不同的配体表现出立体差异性。讨论了基于叶酸受体亚型存在的“手性空间”差异性,构建叶酸受体亚型荧光及手性识别探针的可能性;有望借助光谱成像,通过手性荧光探针分子对氨基酸的识别区分叶酸受体两种亚型,实现可视化区分肿瘤细胞和炎症巨噬细胞的识别难题,进而提高癌细胞识别的准确性;文章介绍了手性荧光探针识别氨基酸原理及结构优化设计进展;近年来手性量子点对氨基酸不同对映体的研究备受关注。对无机手性量子点手性产生的本质特征和氨基酸对映体的识别特性进行了总结分析。最后对荧光探针及手性识别领域进行了展望。     

Fluorescence Lifetime Tuning—A Novel Approach to Study Flip-Flop Kinetics in Supported Phospholipid Bilayers

In the present work we introduce a straightforward fluorescent assay that can be applied in studies of the transbilayer movement (flip-flop) of fluorescent lipid analogues across supported phospholipid bilayers (SPBs). The assay is based on the distance dependent fluorescence quenching by light absorbing surfaces. Applied to SPBs this effect leads to strong differences in fluorescence lifetimes when the dye moves from the outer lipid leaflet to the leaflet in contact with the support. Herein, we present the basic principles of this novel approach, and comment on its advantages over the commonly used methods for investigating flip-flop dynamics across lipid bilayers. We test the assay on the fluorescent lipid analog Atto633-DOPE and the 3-hydroxyflavone F2N12S probe in SPBs composed of DOPC/ DOPS lipids. Moreover, we compare and discuss the flip-flop rates of the probes with respect to their lateral diffusion coefficients.