An examination of dynamic fracture under biaxial-strain conditions

An experiment to investigate the influence of biaxial strain on the dynamic fracture of metals is outlined. A hollow cylindrical specimen is loaded on the inner diameter by a polyethylene-coated exploding wire which results in a circumferential spallation pattern. Prior to fracture, the spall surface undergoes biaxial deformation with a total hoop strain of the same order of magnitude as the total radial strain. This is in contrast to earlier studies in which fracture induced by stress waves was examined in experiments which are characterized by uniaxial-strain conditions. Comparing the results of the two configurations, it can be shown that the maximum principal-stress history required to cause fracture is the same in both cases, although the stresses normal to the fracture surface are quite different. High-speed photographs of the coated exploding wires and dynamic-flash X-rays of the specimens are included to demonstrate the axisymmetry of both the loading and the spall phenomenon.     

Implementation of the exploding wire technique to study blast-wave–structure interaction

The effort invested in improving our understanding of the physics of high-energy explosion events has been steadily increasing since the latter part of the twentieth century. Moreover, the dramatic increase in computer power over the last two decades has made the numerical simulation approach the dominant tool for investigating blast phenomena and their effects. However, field tests, on both large and small scales, are still in use. In the current paper, we present an experimental tool to better resolve and study the blast–structure interaction phenomenon and to help validate the numerical simulations of the same. The experimental tool uses an exploding wire technique to generate small-scale cylindrical and spherical blast waves. This approach permits safe operation, high repeatability, and the use of advanced diagnostic systems. The system was calibrated using an analytical model, an empirical model, and numerical simulation. To insure that spherical blast geometry was achieved, a set of free air blast experiments was done in which high-speed photography was used to monitor the blast structure. A scenario in which an explosion occurred in the vicinity of a structure demonstrated the system’s capabilities. Using this simple but not trivial configuration showed unequivocally the effectiveness of this tool. From this comparison, it was found that at early times of blast–structure interaction, the agreement between the two sets of results was very good, but at later times incongruences appeared. Effort has been made to interpret this observation. Furthermore, by using similitude analysis, the results obtained from the small-scale experiments can be applied to the full-scale problem. We have shown that an exploding wire system offers an inexpensive, safe, easy to operate, and effective tool for studying phenomena related to blast-wave–structure interactions.     

水中金属丝电爆炸动力学过程的零维模型

金属丝电爆炸包含丰富的物理内容,近年来国内的实验和理论研究取得了重要进展,理解该过程有助于完善Z箍缩及磁加载等离子体动力学过程的物理建模,校验物性参数。在自相似运动假设条件下,发展了冷启动计算的水中电爆炸丝零维动力学模型。从一维磁流体模型出发,推导了描述丝等离子体膨胀的零维动能方程和内能方程,采用实际气体状态方程和修正的李-莫尔电导率参数作为封闭条件,根据质量守恒及水中激波雨贡纽关系式获得了丝等离子体的边界条件。应用于水中铜丝电爆炸动力学过程和能量转化分析,结果表明：该零维模型的物理假设合理,在一定范围内改变丝直径等参数可产生不同的放电模式,与一维模型及实验结果符合较好,能够为同类实验的优化设计和数据分析提供参考。     

Bending actuation in polyurethanes with a symmetrically graded distribution of one-way shape memory alloy wires

Structures are being actuated by embedding shape memory alloy (SMA) wires into compliant materials, such as polyurethane. To achieve bending actuation, these wires are placed in opposing wire configurations, where multiple wires are often employed to enhance the amplitude of the bending actuation response. In this investigation, a procedure has been developed for fabricating polyurethanes with a symmetrically graded distribution of SMA wires. The effects of grading the distribution of one-way SMA wires have been characterized using full-field displacement deformation measurements obtained with the digital image correlation (DIC) technique. These measurements have been used in a one-dimensional (1D) model of bending actuation to determine the “equivalent two-way shape memory effect (SME)” of the graded wire distribution. To utilize the 1D actuation model, the constitutive properties of the polyurethane structure predicted by rule-of-mixture formulations were reduced to account for the differences in strain between the SMA wires and the polyurethane matrix. The graded wire distribution was also found to significantly stiffen the polyurethane structure. The level of equivalent two-way SME therefore became limited by the maximum recovery stress of the SMA wires, with a maximum level that was approximately 75% less than previously measured levels in an opposing wire configuration. However, the bending actuation behavior was more symmetric, and the actuated bending deflections were similar to those observed when using more compliant materials. It was also predicted that the symmetrically graded wire distribution would exhibit a better balance between actuation amplitude and uniformity, which combined with the more symmetric actuation behavior makes the graded wire distribution potentially more desirable for achieving higher actuation frequencies with distributed actuation concepts in new applications, such as miniaturized double diaphragm pumping devices.     

Aluminum micro-particles combustion ignited by underwater electrical wire explosion

The results of experiments on the ignition of aluminum micro-particles’ combustion by underwater electrical wire explosion (UEWE) are reported. A compact sub-microsecond timescale duration high-current (240 kA) pulsed power generator was used to explode copper and aluminum wires electrically in different aluminum powder suspensions. The combustion of the aluminum micro-particles was characterized by a target time-of-flight method and optical measurements of the exploding wire and aluminum suspension light emission. It was shown that, by using a proper solution and type of aluminum powder, this method allows aluminum micro-particle combustion in the estimated range of 32–79 % efficiency.     

Neutron Diffraction Measurement of Stress Redistribution in Parallel Seven-Wire Strands after Local Fracture

We report results from neutron diffraction experiments where partitioning of applied tensile load between the inner and outer wires of seven-wire parallel and quasi-parallel wire strands were measured while 1-all wires were undergoing elastic deformation, 2-where one wire within the bundle was undergoing plastic flow and, 3-when one or more wires fractured under load. The results indicate that mechanical interference and friction mechanisms have similar contributions to the load transferred to fractured wires, and both mechanisms should be included in analytical or numerical formulations of strain partitioning in quasi-parallel wire cables.     

矿井提升钢丝绳改性氧化石墨烯润滑油减摩特性研究

针对恶劣提升工况下润滑失效导致的提升钢丝绳内部钢丝摩擦磨损严重的问题,开展改性氧化石墨烯润滑油减摩特性研究. 首先,制备十八胺官能化氧化石墨烯(ODA-GO)及其水合肼还原材料(ODA-rGO),分析其化学结构、表面形貌、片层间距和缺陷,探究其在钢丝绳润滑油IRIS中的分散性;接着,用四球机评价改性润滑油的减摩抗磨性能并研究其润滑机理;最后,评判ODA-GO改性油对钢丝减摩的改进效果. 结果表明:ODA通过酰胺化反应和亲核取代反应接枝在GO表面,ODA-GO拥有高接枝密度的十八烷基链,并在IRIS中分散性较好,ODA-rGO则相反,但在最优添加量下ODA-rGO的抗磨减摩性优于ODA-GO;改性石墨烯基材料会附着在摩擦接触表面,并填补已损伤区域,从而减少磨损;ODA-GO改性油使钢丝间摩擦系数降低10%,疲劳磨损显著降低.      

Constitutive modeling of strain-induced softening in swollen elastomers

Under cyclic loading, elastomeric material exhibits strong inelastic responses such as stress-softening due to Mullins effect, hysteresis and permanent set. The corresponding inelastic responses are observed in both dry and swollen rubbers. Moreover, it is observed that inelastic responses depend strongly on the swelling level. For engineering applications involving the interaction and contact between rubber components and solvent, the understanding and consideration of swelling are essential pre-requisites for durability analysis. In this paper, a simple phenomenological model describing Mullins effect in swollen rubbers under cyclic loading is proposed. More precisely, the proposed model adopts the concept of evolution of soft domain microstructure with deformation originally proposed by Mullins and Tobin. The swollen rubbers are obtained by immersing dry ones in solvent until desired degrees of swelling are achieved. Subsequently, their mechanical responses, in particular Mullins effect, under cyclic loading are investigated. These experimental data are used to assess the efficiency of the proposed model. Results show that the model agrees qualitatively well with experiments. Furthermore, the model captures well the fundamental features of strain-induced softening.     

Modeling of large inelastic deformations of foams with respect to the point of compaction

The present paper considers constitutive modeling of structural foams undergoing large deformations in combination with high deformation rates. In particular, large inelastic compactions is in focus, involving hardening of the material as the point of compaction of the foam is approached, and rate dependent evolution of the plastic deformation. A phenomenological approach is adopted, where the foam is regarded as a gas-filled porous material formulated in the framework of Theory of Porous Media (TPM). In this framework, an elasto-viscoplastic model of Perzyna type is proposed. As an example of model application, an analysis of an impact test of a polymeric foam cube is presented, involving calibration of the model parameters as well as the actual simulation of the impact test using the finite element code LS-DYNA.     

基于力热耦合材料模型的Steven试验数值模拟方法

在力热耦合材料模型中,增加炸药自热放能模型,建立了Steven试验的力-热-化耦合的数值模拟方法。数值计算模型中,应力应变关系采用双线性硬化弹塑性模型,炸药受力后的热作用采用各向同性热材料模型,炸药的化学反应采用Arrhenius反应率函数,同时还考虑了升温和熔化对材料力学、热学性能的影响。针对标准Steven试验,通过数值分析得到了靶板的变形情况和炸药点火的速度阈值,将计算结果与实验数据进行了比较,两者符合较好。表明该方法可以较好地模拟Steven试验,而且与以往的分析模型和方法相比,本文的方法不需要增加经验性的点火准则和判据,具有更广泛的适用性,可以为研究低速撞击条件下炸药的力热响应和局域化点火问题提供参考。     

Boiling-like phenomena in free-convection heat transfer at supercritical pressures

Four differently composed nickel-alloy wires and platinum wires were used as heaters to CO₂ in a wide range of pressures and temperatures. Visual observations exhibited three flow regimes: laminar flow, oscillatory flow and turbulent film flow. Boiling-like phenomena may only be attributed to the oscillatory and film regime with respect to the appearance of bubble-like structures and high heat transfer coefficients. The occurrence of these regimes depends on the thermal diffusivity of the wire material. Only laminar flow is observed for platinum wires with a high thermal diffusivity; all three regimes are observed with nichrome wires with low values of thermal diffusivity. The high heat transfer coefficients obtained with boiling-like action distinctly deviate from a correlation valid for platinum wire experiments.     

A Theoretical Study on Nonlinear Bending of Wires

The nonlinear bending of thin wires is a challenging topic in several applications where the final geometry of the wire after bending and springback has to be known. Typical examples are tyre manufacturing, helical spring design, spectacles frames. In order to develop analytical models able to set bending parameters for a required final shape of the wire, both account material behaviour (during the loading and unloading phases with springback effect) and geometrical nonlinearity have to be considered. In the case of plates bending, many analytical and numerical models are available in the literature, offering an accurate solution to this problem. However, the bending of thin wires could still be the subject of discussion and research. In this paper a new analytical model was developed, starting from the models available in the literature, in order to provide the designer with a simple model to predict the final shape of a wire by using mathematical codes. The model allows to predict with a higher level of accuracy the final shape of wires having different cross-sections after nonlinear bending. Since Bernoulli’s hypothesis is assumed, the model can be used in all the applications where the material behaviour of the wire guarantees that plane cross sections of the wire will remain plane after rotation due to bending, with negligible errors from the engineering point of view.     

Control of flow past a circular cylinder via a spanwise surface wire: effect of the wire scale

Flow phenomena induced by a single spanwise wire on the surface of a circular cylinder are investigated via a cinema technique of particle image velocimetry (PIV). The primary aim of this investigation is to assess the effect of the wire scale. To this end, consideration is given to wires with different diameters that are 0.5, 1.2, and 2.9% of the cylinder diameter. The Reynolds number has a subcritical value of 10,000. Compared to the thickness of the unperturbed boundary layer developing around the cylinder between 5° and 75° from the forward stagnation point, the former two wires have smaller scales and the latter has a larger scale. Two angular locations of the wire, defined with respect to the forward stagnation point of the cylinder, are found to be critical. When the wire is located at these critical angles, either the most significant extension or the contraction of the time-mean separation bubble occurs in the near wake. These critical angles depend on the wire scale: the smaller the wire, the larger the critical angle. The small-scale and large-scale wires that have diameters of 1.2 and 2.9% of the cylinder diameter induce bistable shear-layer oscillations between different separation modes when placed at their respective critical angles corresponding to maximum extension of the near-wake bubble. These oscillations have irregular time intervals that are much longer than the time scale associated with the classical Kármán instability. Moreover, the large-scale wire can either significantly attenuate or intensify the Kármán mode of vortex shedding at the critical states; in contrast, the small-scale wires do not notably alter the strength of the Kármán instability.     

绳牵引并联机器人弹性变形对动平台位姿精度的影响Influence of elastic deformation on pose precision of moving platform for wire-driven parallel robot

针对六自由度绳牵引并联机器人在风洞试验中的应用,分析了牵引绳弹性变形对动平台位姿精度的影响,其实质是运动学正解问题。鉴于牵引绳只能受拉力的特点,以及风洞试验的目的,须考虑系统的刚度和绳拉力的优化。基于系统运动学和动力学方程,推导了系统刚度矩阵;以提高系统主方向刚度为目标函数,对绳拉力进行了动态优化分布,以求解弹性变形;采用L‐M数值方法进行运动学正解,量化分析了两种不同弹性模量的牵引绳对系统刚度的影响,以及弹性变形引起的动平台位姿误差。研究结果表明,以刚度增强为优化目标,有利于提高系统稳定性;采用弹性模量较大的牵引绳,可以有效提高系统的刚度,减小绳长变形引起的飞行器模型位姿误差,满足风洞试验的精度要求。上述结果可为后续机构的改善和系统高精度的力位混合控制提供依据和指导。     

Constitutive behavior of superplastic materials

Superplasticity is an intriguing inelastic process in solid materials with deformation upto several thousand percent. Forming sheet and bulk materials using superplastic forming has become an established manufacturing method in aerospace and lately in other industries. Developing the right constitutive behavior is important not only for modeling the process for manufacturing by engineering mechanicians but for choosing the right composition and processing for material scientists. Such an ideal constitutive equation has been eluding the analysts so far. This paper examines some of the fundamental misgivings about the origin of inelastic process in superplasticity compared to other well known deformation processes. Also an attempt is made to understand the basic characteristics of superplastic inelastic deformation at macroscopic, mesoscopic and atomic levels.     

Constitutive response of idealized granular media under the principal stress axes rotation

This paper is dedicated to the understanding of the phenomena, which give rise to anisotropy and non-coaxiality in granular materials. In achieving three-dimensional numerical simulation under static condition of granular media, granular element method (GEM) is adopted in this study. The method has been incorporated into the so-called mathematical homogenization theory for quasi-static equilibrium problems, which enables us to obtain the macroscopic/phenomenological inelastic deformation response of a representative volume element (RVE). To examine the anisotropic macroscopic deformation properties of the assumed RVE, which is solved by granular element method (GEM), a series of numerical experiments involving the pure rotation of the principal stress axes are carried out, and its results are discussed in relation to induced anisotropy and non-coaxiality.     

Velocity gradients in a turbulent jet flow

We present a selection of results from experiments on an air turbulent jet flow, which included measurements of all the three velocity components and their nine gradients with the emphasis on the properties of invariant quantities related to velocity gradients (enstrophy, dissipation, enstrophy generation, etc.). This has been achieved by a 21 hot wire probe (5 arrays x 4 wires and a cold wire), appropriate calibration unit and a 3-D calibration procedure [1]. A more detailed account on the results will be published elsewhere.     

Atomistic simulation of the structure and elastic properties of gold nanowires

We performed atomistic simulations to study the effect of free surfaces on the structure and elastic properties of gold nanowires aligned in the 〈100〉 and 〈111〉 crystallographic directions. Computationally, we formed a nanowire by assembling gold atoms into a long wire with free sides by putting them in their bulk fcc lattice positions. We then performed a static relaxation on the assemblage. The tensile surface stresses on the sides of the wire cause the wire to contract along the length with respect to the original fcc lattice, and we characterize this deformation in terms of an equilibrium strain versus the cross-sectional area. While the surface stress causes wires of both orientations and all sizes to increasingly contract with decreasing cross-sectional area, when the cross-sectional area of a 〈100〉 nanowire is less than , the wire undergoes a phase transformation from fcc to bct, and the equilibrium strain increases by an order of magnitude. We then applied a uniform uniaxial strain incrementally to 1.2% to the relaxed nanowires in a molecular statics framework. From the simulation results we computed the effective axial Young's modulus and Poisson's ratios of the nanowire as a function of cross-sectional area. We used two approaches to compute the effective elastic moduli, one based on a definition in terms of the strain derivative of the total energy and another in terms of the virial stress often used in atomistic simulations. Both give quantitatively similar results, showing an increase in Young's modulus with a decrease of cross-sectional area in the nanowires that do not undergo a phase transformation. Those that undergo a phase transformation experience an increase of about a factor of three of Young's modulus. The Poisson's ratio of the 〈100〉 wires that do not undergo a phase transformation show little change with the cross-sectional area. Those wires that undergo a phase transformation experience an increase of about 10% in Poisson's ratio. The 〈111〉 wires show, with a decrease of cross-sectional area, an increase in one of Poisson's ratios and small change in the other.     

结构爆炸毁伤的浸没多介质有限体积物质点法

结构在爆炸载荷作用下的毁伤现象涉及强非线性激波、固体结构极端变形和破坏破碎、强流固耦合, 给数值计算方法带来了极大的困难与挑战. 针对结构爆炸毁伤问题, 建立了浸没多介质有限体积物质点法(iMMFV-MPM), 采用基于黎曼求解器的多介质有限体积法(MMFVM)模拟爆炸产物和空气的多介质流体, 采用物质点法(MPM)模拟固体结构, 并将提出的基于拉格朗日乘子的连续力浸没边界法(lg-CFIBM)扩展到多介质流体中以处理流固耦合边界条件. 该算法在每个时间步严格满足流固耦合界面处的速度边界条件及动量守恒方程, 不需要重构流固耦合界面, 能够有效地模拟近场爆炸下爆炸产物与结构的相互作用、激波与结构的相互作用和演化以及结构的动态断裂和拓扑变化. 利用iMMFV-MPM对近场爆炸下方形钢筋混凝土靶板的失效模式、外爆载荷下建筑物的毁伤现象以及多腔室内爆炸试验进行了模拟, 模拟结果与相关实验数据吻合良好, 验证了所建立的流固耦合算法的有效性及精度.      

Some dynamic properties of axially loaded wire ropes

Results are presented on the transverse damping, the transverse fundamental natural frequency as well as the longitudinal fundamental natural frequency for axially loaded wire ropes. Twelve different wire ropes are tested. During the test, a mass is centrally attached to the rope. The results indicate an increasing transverse damping with an increasing axial load. This damping is primarily attributed to a Coulomb damping. Although core material and construction influence the transverse damping of the wire rope, no relationships are found when comparing this damping with the structural strength, the number of wires used in the rope, the alloy composition or the heat treatment of the rope materials. The transverse and longitudinal fundamental natural frequencies of the axially loaded wire ropes with a mass centrally attached has been satisfactorily modeled.