Complementary Standoff Chemical Imaging to Map and Identify Artist Materials in an Early Italian Renaissance Panel Painting

Two imaging modalities based on molecular and elemental spectroscopy were used to characterize a painting by Cosimo Tura. Visible‐to‐near‐infrared (400–1680 nm) reflectance imaging spectroscopy (RIS) and X‐ray fluorescence (XRF) imaging spectroscopy were employed to identify pigments and determine their spatial distribution with higher confidence than from either technique alone. For example, Mary’s red robe was modeled through the distribution of an insect‐derived red lake (RIS map) and lead white (XRF lead map), rather than a layer of red lake on vermilion. The RIS image cube was also used to isolate the preparatory design by mapping the reflectance spectra associated with it. In conjunction with results from an earlier RIS study (1650–2500 nm) to map and identify the binding media, a more thorough understanding was gained of the materials and techniques used in the painting.     

Raman spectroscopic analysis of the Maya wall paintings in Ek'Balam, Mexico

Raman spectroscopy has been applied to the examination of wall painting fragments from the archaeological site of Ek'Balam (Yucatán, Mexico). Thirty-three samples have been studied, all originating from room 23 of the Acropolis, and being representative of the painting technique at Ek'Balam during the late Classic Maya period. Several pigments such as haematite, calcite, carbon, cinnabar and indigo were identified in these samples. The latter pigment was presumed to be present as 'Maya blue', which is an intercalation product of indigo and palygorskite clay. The observed Raman spectra are reported and some band assignments have been made. This survey is the first Raman spectroscopic examination of a whole set of pigments in archaeological Maya wall painting fragments.     

Identification of lipid binders in paintings by gas chromatography. Influence of the pigments

The influence of the presence and the type of pigments in the lipid binding media of paintings were studied by gas chromatography with flame ionization detector. The drying oils were linseed stand oil, poppy oil and sunflower oil, and the pigments studied were cadmium red, cobalt blue, tin white, lead white, chalk and plaster of Paris, commonly used in paintings. The results indicate that the stearic/palmitic ratio and the presence of pigments are quite stable during ageing. However, some differences in the oleic acid/palmitic acid ratio were found, depending on the type of pigment present in the lipid binding media. These variations are related to the drying effect of the pigments. The proposed method has been applied to the identification of drying oils in two samples from baroque paintings in the "Basilica de la Virgen de los Desamparados" of Valencia, Spain.     

Analytical contributions to the evaluation of painting authenticity from Princely church of Curtea de Arges

The present study contains the analyses performed for pigment samples taken from the Princely church of Curtea de Arges, one of the oldest churches in Romania. The results of our investigations have shown the source of these samples, thus being identified the pigments: natural ultramarine, cinnabar, red earth, and calcium carbonate in the painting from the 14th century, the pigments: lead white, zinc white, and Prussian blue in the repainting from the 19th century and the pigments zinc white, titanium dioxide white, bone white, yellow ochre, red ochre, green earth, artificial ultramarine, and mars red in the interventions carried out in the 20th century. The analyses consisted of light microscopy (LM) and microchemical tests, as well as energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis. This system of analyses allows one to precisely determine the authenticity of certain pigments, thus avoiding the dating errors for different interventions carried out on the original mural painting from the Saint Nicholas Princely church of Curtea de Arges.     

Analysis of organic colouring and binding components in colour layer of art works

Two methods of analysis of organic components of colour layers of art works have been tested: IR microspectroscopy of indigo, Cu-phthalocyanine, and Prussian blue, and MALDI-TOF-MS of proteinaceous binders and a protein-containing red dye. The IR spectra distortion common for smooth outer surfaces and polished cross sections of colour layer of art works is suppressed by reflectance measurement of microtome slices. The detection limit of the three blue pigments examined is ~0.3 wt% in reference colour layers in linseed oil binder with calcite as extender and lead white as a drying agent. The sensitivity has been sufficient to identify Prussian blue in repaints on a Gothic painting. MALDI-TOF-MS has been used to identify proteinaceous binders in two historical paintings, namely isinglass (fish glue) and rabbit glue. MALDI-TOF-MS has also been proposed for identification of an insect red dye, cochineal carmine, according to its specific protein component. The enzymatic cleavage with trypsin before MALDI-TOF-MS seems to be a very gentle and specific way of dissolution of the colour layers highly polymerised due to very long aging of old, e.g. medieval, samples.     

Chemie in der Freskomalerei: Kunst,Computer, Chemie

Prehistoric cave paintings have been conserved for about 15000 to 20000 thousand years. As modern investigations have shown the applied pigments are covered with a surface film of crystallized lime.This is the principle used when fresco‐painting. The pigments are painted on freshly applied, wet lime‐water walls or ceilings. During the process of ripening carbon dioxide is absorbed from atmosphere. Lime mortar is hardening, the pigments dry with the plaster to become a permanent part of brickwork. Though fresco buono (= true fresco)is the most durable technique it depends sensitively on processes of acid‐base‐equilibria. Thus, fresco‐paintings are „in dialogue”︁ with environmental conditions for all times. The physico‐chemical principles of fresco‐painting are discussed and demonstrated.     

The identification of synthetic organic pigments in modern paints and modern paintings using pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

A collection of more than 70 synthetic organic pigments were analysed using pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS). We report on the analysis of diketo-pyrrolo-pyrrole, isoindolinone and perylene pigments which are classes not previously reported as being analysed by this technique. We also report on a number of azo pigments (2-naphthol, naphthol AS, arylide, diarylide, benzimidazolone and disazo condensation pigments) and phthalocyanine pigments, the Py-GC-MS analysis of which has not been previously reported. The members of each class were found to fragment in a consistent way and the pyrolysis products are reported. The technique was successfully applied to the analysis of paints used by the artist Francis Bacon (1909-1992), to simultaneously identify synthetic organic pigments and synthetic binding media in two samples of paint taken from Bacon's studio and micro-samples taken from three of his paintings and one painting attributed to him.     

Characterization of “oil on copper” paintings by energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry

Energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence is a common analytical tool for layer thickness measurements in quality control processes in the coating industry, but there are scarce microanalytical applications in order to ascertain semi-quantitative or quantitative information of painted layers. “Oil on copper” painting becomes a suitable material to be analysed by means of X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, due to the metallic nature of substrate and the possibility of applying layered models as used in coating industry. The aim of this work is to study the suitability of a quantitative energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence methodology for the assessment of the areal distribution of pigments and the characterization of painting methods on such kind of pictorial artworks. The method was calibrated using standard reference materials: dried droplets of monoelemental standard solutions laid on a metallic plate of copper. As an example of application, we estimated pigment mass distribution of two “oil on copper” paintings from the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries. Pictorial layers have been complementarily analysed by X-ray diffraction. Apart of the supporting media made of copper or brass, we could identify two different superimposed layers: (a) a preparation layer mainly composed by white lead and (b) the pictorial layer of variable composition depending on the pigments used by the artist on small areas of the painting surface. The areal mass distribution of the different elements identified in the painting pigments (Ca, Cr, Mn, Fe, Zn, Cd, Hg and Pb) have been determined by elemental mapping of some parts of the artworks.     

Application of emission spectrometer with laser sampler to microanalysis of pigments from Hubert Robert’s canvas painting

Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy has been applied to layer-by-layer pigment material microanalysis from the different sections of Hubert Robert’s (1733–1808) painting “Landscape of a Pool with an Obelisk and Ruins of an Aqueduct”. This painting consists of two sections and, therefore, requires thorough examination of the pigments from both sections in order to identify their authenticity. The data obtained on the elemental composition of the paint layers including the ground layer alongside with art examination have formed the basis for the identification, attribution and restoration of both investigated sections of the painting.     

Attenuated total reflection micro FTIR characterisation of pigment–binder interaction in reconstructed paint films

The interaction of pigments and binding media may result in the production of metal soaps on the surface of paintings which modifies their visible appearance and state of conservation. To characterise more fully the metal soaps found on paintings, several historically accurate oil and egg yolk tempera paint reconstructions made with different pigments and naturally aged for 10 years were submitted to attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (ATR FTIR) microspectroscopic analyses. Standard metal palmitates were synthesised and their ATR spectra recorded in order to help the identification of metal soaps. Among the different lead-based pigments, red lead and litharge seemed to produce a larger amount of carboxylates compared with lead white, Naples yellow and lead tin yellow paints. Oil and egg tempera litharge and red lead paints appeared to be degraded into lead carbonate, a phenomenon which has been observed for the first time. The formation of metal soaps was confirmed on both oil and egg tempera paints based on zinc, manganese and copper and in particular on azurite paints. ATR mapping analyses showed how the areas where copper carboxylates were present coincided with those in which azurite was converted into malachite. Furthermore, the key role played by manganese in the production of metals soaps on burnt and raw sienna and burnt and raw umber paints has been observed for the first time. The formation of copper, lead, manganese, cadmium and zinc metal soaps was also identified on egg tempera paint reconstructions even though, in this case, the overlapping of the spectral region of the amide II band with that of metal carboxylates made their identification difficult.     

In situ investigations of vault paintings in the Antwerp cathedral

X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) and Raman spectroscopy have been used to examine 15th century mediaeval and 16th century renaissance vault paintings in the Our Lady's Cathedral (Antwerp, Belgium) in view of their restoration. The use of mobile instruments made it possible to work totally non-destructively. This complementary approach yields information on the elemental (XRF) and on the molecular composition (Raman) of the pigments. For the 15th century vault painting the pigments lead–tin yellow (Pb₂SnO₄), lead white (2PbCO₃·Pb(OH)₂), vermilion (HgS), massicot (PbO) and azurite (2CuCO₃·Cu(OH)₂) could be identified. The pigments used for the 16th century vault painting could be identified as red lead (Pb₃O₄), hematite (Fe₂O₃), lead white (2PbCO₃·Pb(OH)₂) and azurite (2CuCO₃·Cu(OH)₂). For both paintings the presence of the strong Raman scatterer calcite (CaCO₃) resulted in a difficult identification of the pigments by Raman spectroscopy. The presence of gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O) on the mediaeval vault painting probably indicates that degradation took place.     

The ageing of model pigment/linseed oil systems studied by means of vibrational spectroscopies and chemometrics

We used Fourier Transform - Near Infrared (FT-NIR) and micro-Raman spectroscopies to follow the changes occurring in a thin layer of linseed oil in the presence of lead white (basic lead carbonate) and zinc white (zinc oxide), which were due to the natural ageing process.The curing of linseed oil is a very complicated process, owing to different mechanisms that occur simultaneously, ones which may be further modified by the presence of pigments and by environmental conditions (e.g. light, humidity, temperature). Both lead white and zinc white pigments affect this process, leading to the formation of films with different properties. Previous studies have already characterised the ageing of binders alone, including linseed oil. We investigated, by means of a combined analysis of the results of two different vibrational spectroscopy methods, the role of these two white pigments on the ageing of a linseed oil film. Model samples were prepared, and we followed their evolution over a 24-month period. Two ten-year-old oil mock-ups, which were prepared by using lead and zinc white pigments (comparable to contemporary oil painting), were analysed within the framework of the present results.Lastly, we exploited the potentiality of Principal Component Analysis (PCA) on the combined FT-NIR and Raman spectra in order to define a possible ageing trend for two oil-white mixtures. Furthermore, we tested the statistical models by comparison with spectra related to the two ten-year-old mock-ups.     

Multivariate chemical mapping of pigments and binders in easel painting cross-sections by micro IR reflection spectroscopy

Paintings are composed of superimposed layers of inorganic and organic materials (pigments and binders). Knowledge of the stratigraphic sequence of these heterogeneous layers is fundamental for understanding the artist’s painting technique and for conservation issues. In this study, micro-IR mapping experiments in reflection mode have been carried out on cross-sections taken from simulations of ancient easel paintings. The objective was to locate both organic binders and inorganic pigments. Chemical maps have been re-constructed using the common approach based on the integration of specific infrared bands. However, owing to the complexity of painting materials, this approach is not always applicable when dealing with broad and superimposed spectral features and with reststrahlen or derivative-like bands resulting from acquisition in reflection mode. To overcome these limitations, principal-component analysis has been successfully used for the re-construction of the image, extracting the relevant information from the complex full spectral data sets and obtaining reliable chemical distributions of the stratigraphy materials. Different pigment–binder combinations have been evaluated in order to understand limitations and strengths of the approach. Finally, the method has been applied for stratigraphic characterization of a cross-section from a 17th century wooden sculpture identifying both the original paint layer and the several overpaintings constituting the complex stratigraphy.     

Identification of lead pigments in nanosamples from ancient paintings and polychromed sculptures using voltammetry of nanoparticles/atomic force microscopy

Voltammetry of nanoparticles coupled with atomic force microscopy was used to identify lead pigments in nanosamples proceeding from works of art. Upon mechanical attachment of few nanograms of sample to a graphite plate, well-defined voltammetric responses were obtained for lead orange, lead yellow, lead white, litharge, minium, Naples yellow, and tin-lead yellow, allowing for an unambiguous identification of such pigments. Atomic force images provide evidence for the occurrence of pigment-characteristic reduction processes accompanied by metal deposition on the graphite substrate. Electrochemical parameters are used for pigment identification. Application to the method for identifying lead pigments in different model binder + pigment specimens and pictorial samples from the canvas painting collection (anonymous, 17th century) of the Saint Joseph Church in Taormina (Italy), the frescoes painted by Antonio Acisclo Palomino y Velasco (1698) in the vault of the Sant Joan del Mercat church in València (Spain) and an anonymous polychromed sculpture (16th century) representing a Martyr Saint from Alacant (Spain) is described.     

Non-destructive in situ determination of pigments in 15th century wall paintings by Raman microscopy

Raman microscopy has been applied to the study of 15th century wall paintings in a chapel of St. Orso Priory palace (Aosta, Italy) in view of their restoration. The use of a transportable instrument has made it possible to work non-destructively in situ without sampling. The main inorganic pigments used by the unknown artist, namely mercury sulphide, azurite, white lead, red and yellow ochre, carbon black and lead tin yellow type I have been identified, and the presence of organic substances and of some decay products (calcium sulphate and oxalate) has been observed.     

Development of an analytical protocol for a fast,sensitive and specific protein recognition in paintings by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) analysis of proteins offers a particularly promising approach for investigations in cultural heritage on account of its appreciated properties of being highly specific, sensitive, relatively fast, and cost-affordable with respect to other conventional techniques. In spite of that, it has never been fully exploited for routine analyses of painting materials in consideration of several analytical issues that inhibited its diffusion in conservation science: limited sample dimensions, decrease of binder solubility and reduced availability of antibody bonding sites occurring with protein degradation. In this study, an ELISA analytical protocol suited for the identification of aged denatured proteins in ancient painting micro-samples has been developed. We focused on the detection of bovine β-casein and chicken ovalbumin as markers of bovine milk (or casein) and chicken albumen, respectively. A systematic experimentation of the ELISA protocol has been carried out on mock-ups of mural and easel painting prepared with 13 different pigments to assess limits and strengths of the method when applied for the identification of proteins in presence of a predominant inorganic matrix. The analytical procedure has been optimized with respect to protein extraction, antibodies’ concentrations, incubation time and temperature; it allows the detection of the investigated proteins with sensitivity down to nanograms. The optimized protocol was then tested on artificially aged painting models. Analytical results were very encouraging and demonstrated that ELISA allows for protein analysis also in degraded painting samples. To address the feasibility of the developed ELISA methodology, we positively investigated real painting samples and results have been cross-validated by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry.     

Molecular Fluorescence Imaging Spectroscopy for Mapping Low Concentrations of Red Lake Pigments: Van Gogh's Painting The Olive Orchard

Vincent van Gogh used fugitive red lake pigments that have faded in some paintings. Mapping their distribution is key to understanding how his paintings have changed with time. While red lake pigments can be identified from microsamples, in situ identification and mapping remain challenging. This paper explores the ability of molecular fluorescence imaging spectroscopy to identify and, more importantly, map residual non-degraded red lakes. The high sensitivity of this method enabled identification of the emission spectra of eosin (tetrabromine fluorescein) lake mixed with lead or zinc white at lower concentrations than elemental X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy used on account of bromine. The molecular fluorescence mapping of residual eosin and two carmine red lakes in van Gogh's The Olive Orchard is demonstrated and compared with XRF imaging spectroscopy. The red lakes are consistent with the composition of paint tubes known to have been used by van Gogh.     

Analysis of fresco by laser induced breakdown spectroscopy

The laser-based techniques have been shown to be a very powerful tool for artworks characterization and are used in the field of cultural heritage for the offered advantages of minimum invasiveness, in situ applicability and high sensitivity. Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy, in particular, has been applied in this field to many different kinds of ancient materials with successful results. In this work, a fragment of a Roman wall painting from the archaeological area of Pompeii has been investigated by LIBS. The sample elemental composition resulting from LIBS measurements suggested the presence of certain pigments. The ratio of the intensities of different lines related to some characteristic elements is proposed as an indicator for pigment recognition.     

Analytical characterisation of pigments on pre-Roman pottery by means of spectroscopic techniques Part I: white coloured shards

This paper is part of a systematic archaeometric investigation aimed at the characterisation of the pigments and related materials (ligand, colour substrate) used in decoration of pottery excavated in the archaeological zone of Canosa (Puglia, Italy). Shards found in thirteen different tombs have been analysed; in this paper samples exhibiting a white colouration have been selected. Both surface (XPS) and bulk (FT-IR) spectroscopies were used which gave complementary information and enabled white pigments to be divided into two groups. Moreover, X-ray diffraction was used in some cases to further support some spectral assignments. The molecular specificity of FT-IR, when applied to the analysis of both pigments and ceramic body, allowed the identification of the various constituents and, hence, provided indirect information on the end-use of the original wares. The potential of the combined use of different spectroscopies to obtain valuable information on both painting materials and technical aspects is shown.