Features of the Current Sustainment in a Low-Current Discharge in Airflow

The paper relates to the investigations of a low-current discharge in a vortex airflow with the electrode configuration corresponding to classical coaxial plasmatron. The gas flow rate is varied from 0.1 to 0.3 g/s at an inner diameter of the plasmatron nozzle of 5 mm. The discharge is powered by dc voltage via a ballast resistor. Typical averaged current is changed from 0.06 to 0.15 A so that a maximum averaged power dissipated in the discharge amounts to 160 W. In these conditions, a luminous gas region at the plasmatron exit, which in most publications is associated with a plasma jet, is observed. The method for the jet diagnostics based on a usage of the additional electrodes at the plasmatron exit has been proposed. The main idea of the experiments is the elucidation of the problem whether the jet actually represents the plasma area or we have to apply the term “plasma” with care. In particular, in the case under discussion the main charged particles in the jet are electrons that are emitted from a plasma column located in the plasmatron nozzle. The model that describes the formation of electron flow in the jet has been proposed. Typical electron density in the jet estimated with a usage of the model is at a level of 10⁹ cm^?3.

     

Modelling of the Plasma–Sheath Boundary Region in Wall-Stabilized Arc Plasmas: Unipolar Discharge Properties

A two-dimensional model of the non-equilibrium unipolar discharge occurring in the plasma–sheath boundary region of a transferred-arc was developed. This model was used to study the current transfer to the nozzle (1 mm diameter) of a 30 A arc cutting torch operated with oxygen. The energy balance and chemistry processes in the discharge were described by using a kinetic block of 45 elementary reactions and processes with the participation of 13 species including electronically excited particles. The nonlocal transport of electrons was accounted for into the fluid model. The dependence of the ion mobility with the electric field was also considered. Basic discharge properties were described. It has been found that a large part (~ 80%) of the total electric power (1700 mW) delivered in the bulk of the sheath region is spent in heating the positive ions and further dissipated through collisions with the neutral particles. The results also showed that the electron energy loss in inelastic collisions represents only ~ 25% of the electron power and that about 63% of the power spent on gas heating is produced by the ion–molecule reaction, the electron–ion and ion–ion recombination reactions, and by the electron attachment. The rest of the power converted into heat is contributed by dissociation by electron-impact, dissociative ionization and quenching of O(¹D). Some fast gas heating channels which are expected to play a key role in the double-arcing phenomena in oxygen gas were also identified.     

Generation of Long, Laminar Plasma Jets at Atmospheric Pressure and Effects of Flow Turbulence

Long, laminar plasma jets at atmospheric pressure of pure argon and a mixture of argon and nitrogen with jet length up to 45 times its diameter could be generated with a DC arc torch by restricting the movement of arc root in the torch channel. Effects of torch structure, gas feeding, and characteristics of power supply on the length of plasma jets were experimentally examined. Plasma jets of considerable length and excellent stability could be obtained by regulating the generating parameters, including arc channel geometry, gas flow rate, and feeding methods, etc. Influence of flow turbulence at the torch nozzle exit on the temperature distribution of plasma jets was numerically simulated. The analysis indicated that laminar flow plasma with very low initial turbulent kinetic energy will produce a long jet with low axial temperature gradient. This kind of long laminar plasma jet could greatly improve the controllability for materials processing, compared with a short turbulent arc jet.     

Design and Characteristics of a Laminar Plasma Torch for Materials Processing

Thermal plasma jets have been widely used in various materials processing techniques. However, the conventional thermal plasma torches usually generate turbulent plasma jets with the disadvantages of high axial temperature gradient, a short jet length and difficulties in the process control relatively, limiting its applications to materials processing. Therefore, this paper proposes a new laminar plasma torch (LPT) working with pure nitrogen to generate laminar plasma jet (LPJ). Its design and structural characteristics, e.g. segmented anode, axial gas injection, parallel water cooling structure, etc., are detailed to ensure the stability, the favorable temperature and velocity distribution of the generated LPJ. Experiments on the characteristics of the LPT showed that the generated LPJ possessed high specific enthalpy (ranging between 10 and 90 kJ/g), long jet length (maximum length: 480 mm) and low axial temperature gradient, and its output power a current and the gas flow rate. In addition, the thermal efficiency of the LPT was experimentally determined to be ranging between 25 and 45 %. Furthermore, experiment and simulation on the application of the LPJ for surface quenching verified the even radial temperature distribution of the plasma jet and high heat flux density brought to the surface.     

Steam Torch Plasma Modelling

Numerical modelling of physical properties and processes in an electric arc stabilized by a water vortex (steam torch) has been summarized in this review paper. One-fluid MHD equations are numerically solved for an axisymmetric thermal plasma flow inside a discharge chamber of the steam plasma torch. The steady state solution results are discussed for the range of currents 300–600 A with relatively low steam flow rate of about 0.3 g s^?1. The maximum obtained velocities and temperatures—8500 m s^?1, 26,300 K, are reported at the centre of the nozzle exit for 600 A. The evaporation of water, i.e. mass flow rate of steam, was predicted from a comparison between the present simulation and experiments. The generated plasma is mildly compressible (M < 0.7) with the inertial forces overwhelming the magnetic, viscous, centrifugal and Coriolis forces with the factor of 10³. Our calculations showed that the most significant processes determining properties of the arc are the balance of the Joule heat with radiation and radial conduction losses from the arc. Rotation of plasma column due to the tangential velocity component has a negligible effect on the overall arc performance, however, the rotation of water induces fluctuations in the arc and in the plasma jet with characteristic frequency which is related to the frequency of rotation of water. Reabsorption of radiation occurs at the radial position higher than 2.5 mm from the arc axis. The amount of reabsorbed radiation is between 17 and 28%. LTE conditions are satisfied in the arc column with the 2 mm radius. Comparison between the present simulations and experiments shows good agreement with the current–voltage characteristics, radial velocity and temperature profiles, as well as with the other related numerical simulation.     

Direct Measurement of the Gas Entrainment Into a Turbulent Thermal Plasma Jet

An experimental study is conducted to investigate the entrainment characteristics of a turbulent thermal plasma jet issuing from a DC arc plasma torch operating at atmospheric pressure. The mass flow rate of the ambient gas entrained into the turbulent plasma jet is directly measured by use of the so-called “porous-wall chamber” technique. It is shown that a large amount of ambient gas is entrained into the turbulent plasma jet. With the increase of the gas mass flow rate at the plasma jet inlet or the plasma torch exit, the mass flow rate of entrained ambient gas almost linearly increases but its ratio to the jet-inlet mass flow rate decreases. The mass flow rate of the entrained gas increases with the increase of the arc current or jet length. It is also found that using different ways to inject the plasma-forming gas into the plasma torch affects the entrainment rate of the turbulent plasma jet. The entrainment rate expression established previously by Ricou and Spalding (J. Fluid Mech. 11: 21, 1961) for the turbulent isothermal jets has been used to correlate the experimental data of the entrainment rates of the turbulent thermal plasma jet, and the entrainment coefficient in the entrainment rate expression is found to be in range from 0.40 to 0.47 for the turbulent thermal plasma jet under study.     

Experimental Testing of a Curvilinear Gas Shroud Nozzle for Improved Plasma Spraying

The performance of a new gas shroud nozzle attachment for plasma spraying was tested experimentally using particle diagnostics, flow visualization, and coating characterization techniques. A nozzle attachment with curvilinear inner walls was tested and compared with a commercially available conical nozzle. Particle temperatures were measured with a high-speed ratio pyrometer and particle velocities were measured with an intensified camera and a two-laser illumination system. Flow visualization was performed by seeding the surrounding air with smoke. Particle temperatures at the spraying distance were 300 K higher with the curvilinear insert. The plasma jet was narrower but the particle velocity distribution at the spraying distance was unchanged. Higher temperatures and improved particle melting with the curvilinear insert resulted in a reduction in coating porosity (from 7.0 to 7.2 to 4.5–5.1%) and an increase in coating adhesion strength (from 27.2 to 42 MPa). Shrouding as injected through a circular slot around the nozzle exit was also seen to provide better protection than gas injected with the standard sixteen-port configuration.     

Reactions of hydrocarbons in a supersonic vacuum plasma jet

The plasma plume of a hydrogen plasma jet used for diamond synthesis is analyzed by a Pitot tube and by mass spectrometry. In the investigated pressure range of 2–10 mbar, supersonic gas velocities with Mach numbers of up to 2 were observed, which decreased with increasing pressure and increasing distance from the nozzle. The injection of the carbon-containing species either at the exit of the jet nozzle or simply into the background gas of the reaction chamber confirmed the importance of recirculation of background gas into the plasma plume. In the case of background injection the rise of the total carbon content in the plume with increasing distance from the nozzle is much slower than in the case of nozzle injection. The results of a numerical model of the hydrocarbon gas-phase reactions in the jet are presented. The model considers the entrainment of background gas into the plasma plume. Two domains along the jet axis can be distinguished. The first one in the vicinity of the nozzle is dominated by methyl radicals, the second one by atomic carbon. Increase of the hydrogen dissociation level results in the broadening of the atomic carbon domain and the rise of C₂ far from the nozzle. Background injection of CH₄ leads to lower total carbon content in the plume but has little effect on the species distribution along the jet axis.     

Measurement of Temperature in the Steam Arcjet During Plasma Arc Cutting

Spectroscopic measurements were performed by observing the plasma inside the kerf during cutting of stainless steel using direct current electric arc. Experiments were carried out on the plasma torch operated with the plasma gas composed of the vaporized mixture of water and ethanol; arc current was 60 A and cutting speed 30 cm/min. Emission spectral lines of neutral iron were used to experimental evaluation of the temperature of plasma in the kerf and close under the cut plate. Complicated nature of the plasma inside the kerf, including presence of metallic vapours and departures from equilibrium, was taken into account. Hence relatively reliable results were obtained, from which it was possible to get insight into the energy balance and cutting performance of the torch. Temperature of the plasma in the kerf was substantially lower than at the nozzle exit of the torch; however the temperature drop along the kerf was small.     

Dissociation and recombination of oxygen atoms produced in a microwave discharge. Part II. Theoretical calculations

In this study, the degree of dissociation and recombination of oxygen atoms produced by a microwave discharge in oxygen is examined by comparing a theoretical model of the kinetic mechanisms to chemical titration data. The results show that a one-dimensional, temperature-dependent model of the neutral species of the system can predict the oxygen atom concentration profile as measured by nitrogen dioxide titration. The model also indicates that the temperature of the gas is approximately 1000 K and that an overall gas temperature and velocity increase is due to electrical heating by the microwave discharge and not due to the enthalpy change of the species in the system.     

Schlieren High-Speed Imaging of a Nanosecond Pulsed Atmospheric Pressure Non-equilibrium Plasma Jet

The fluid-dynamic characterization by means of Schlieren high-speed imaging of the effluent region of a single electrode plasma jet is presented. The plasma source is powered by a high-voltage generator producing pulses with nanosecond rise time. Time evolution of fluctuations generated in a free flow regime and when the jet is impinging on substrates of different geometries (plain substrates, Petri dishes, etc.) and materials (metal, dielectric covered metal, polystyrene) has been investigated. Plasma ignition causes fluid-dynamic instabilities moving in the direction of the jet flow and correlated with the high-voltage pulses: for low pulse repetition frequency (PRF) (<125 Hz), the movement of the turbulent front between two voltage pulses can be tracked, whereas for higher PRF (1,000 Hz) the flow is completely characterized by turbulent eddies in the effluent region, without relevant changes between subsequent voltage pulses. When the jet is impinging on a substrate, turbulent fronts propagate over the surface starting from the gas impinging zone.     

Influence of Duty Cycle on Ozone Generation and Discharge Using Volume Dielectric Barrier Discharge

The influence of duty cycle on ozone generation and discharge characteristics was investigated experimentally using volume dielectric barrier discharge in both synthetic air and pure oxygen at atmospheric pressure. The discharge was driven by an amplitude-modulated AC high voltage–power supply producing T_ON (a single AC cycle) and T_OFF periods with a widely variable duty cycle. The experimental results show that the energy delivered to the discharge during each AC cycle remains roughly constant and is independent of feed gas, duty cycle and T_OFF. Both average discharge power and ozone concentration show an initial linear increase with duty cycle, and deviate gradually from linearity owing to an increase in gas temperature at higher duty cycles. Nevertheless, ozone yield remains nearly constant (45.7 ± 3.5 g/kWh in synthetic air and 94.7 ± 3.1 g/kWh in pure oxygen) over a wide range of applied duty cycles (0.02–1). This property can be conveniently employed to develop a unique ozone generator with a widely adjustable ozone concentration and simultaneously a constant ozone yield. Additionally, the discharges in synthetic air and pure oxygen have similar electrical characteristics; however, there are observable differences in apparent luminosity, which is weak and white-toned for synthetic air discharge, and bright and blue-toned for pure oxygen discharge.     

Quantitative Schlieren Diagnostics Applied to a Millisecond Pulsed-DC Hybrid Discharge in Atmospheric Pressure Air

The gas temperature of a hybrid discharge in atmospheric pressure air is investigated by using quantitative schlieren imaging. The discharge is stabilized in a pin-to-plate electrode geometry and operated in a millisecond pulsed-DC regime with current amplitudes up to 75 mA and a duration of 10 ms, applied at a frequency of 100 Hz. An equilibrium composition model is considered to account for the production of N, O, and NO, which influence the Gladstone–Dale coefficient of air at high-gas temperatures. Also, a procedure is described which allows the determination of the errors introduced in the time-average gas refraction index due to gas temperature fluctuations. The results show that the axial values of the gas temperature profiles span a large range from?~?1000 to 5000 K, nearly following the evolution of the discharge current. The temperature values found agree well with those reported in the literature for atmospheric pressure air plasmas, ranging from micro-glow to hybrid discharges.

     

Natural iron ore as an oxygen carrier for biomass chemical looping gasification in a fluidized bed reactor

Chemical looping gasification (CLG) of biomass was performed in a thermogravimetric analyzer (TG) reactor together with a fluidized reactor with natural iron ore oxygen carrier under inert atmosphere. TG experiments indicated that iron ore can provide oxygen source for biomass conversion in the form of lattice oxygen. In the fluidized bed experiments, the influences of reduction temperature on CLG of biomass were emphatically investigated in terms of gas distribution and solid characters. The gas yield and carbon conversion increased, but the tar content decreased in the temperature range of 1,013–1,213 K. In this temperature range, the conversion of oxygen carrier increased from 24.11 to 53.59 %. X-ray diffraction analysis shows that more FeO was generated with temperature increasing. Scanning electron microscope analysis indicates that sintering was observed at elevated temperature. An optimum mass ratio of biomass/oxygen carrier (B/O) of 0.67 was obtained with aim of achieving maximum gasification efficiency of 76.93 %.     

Modeling of nonequilibrium effects in a high-velocity nitrogen-hydrogen plasma jet

A numerical simulation has been performed of a high-velocity nitrogen hydrogen plasma jet in air at atmospheric pressure including finite-rate chemical kinetics. Ions, electrons, and neutral atoms and molecules are treated as separate species in the plasma mixture. The chemical reactions considered are dissociation of molecular species, ionization of atomic species, charge exchange and dissociatioe recombination of nitrogen, and hydrogen-oxygen reactions. The calculational results show that strong departures from ionization and dissociation equilibrium develop in the downstream region as the chemical reactions freeze out at lower temperatures, in spite of the assumed chemical equilibrium at the nozzle exit. The calculations also show that ionized species are over-populated throughout the flow, while dissociated species in the core of the jet are underpopulated near the nozzle exit and become over-populated farther downstream. This initial underpopulation is due to diffusive depletion of dissociated species and enrichment of molecular species in the core of the jet.     

Heat Generation and Particle Injection in a Thermal Plasma Torch

The operation of plasma guns used for plasma spraying involves a continuous movement of the anode arc root. The resulting fluctuations of voltage and thermal energy input introduce an undesirable element in the spray process. This paper deals with the effects of these arc instabilities on the plasma jet, and the behavior of particles injected in the flow. The first part refers to the formation of the plasma jet. Measurements show that the static behavior of the arc depends strongly upon the plasma-forming gas mixture, especially the mass flow rate, of the heavy gas, injection mode, nozzle diameter, and arc current. These parameters control the electric field in the arc column, the arc length, its stability, and the gas velocity and temperature. The dynamic behavior of the arc is examined to determine how the tempeature and velocity of the plasma gas vary with voltage variations. Relationships between the gas velocity at the nozzle exit and the lifetime of the arc roots, and the independent operating parameters of the gun can be established from a dimensional analysis. The second part discusses the interaction between the plasma jet and the particles injected into the flow. The parameters controlling particle injection and trajectory are examined to determine how injection velocity must vary with particle size and density to achieve a given trajectory. The effect of the transverse injection of the powder carrier gas is investigated using a 3-D computational fluid dynamics code. Finally, the effect of the jet fluctuations on particle trajectory is studied under the assumption that the jet velocity follows the voltage variation. The result is a continuous variation of the particle spray jet position in the flow. Experimental observations confirm the model predictions.     

Modeling on the Momentum and Heat/Mass Transfer Characteristics of an Argon Plasma Jet Issuing into Air Surroundings and Interacting with a Counter-Injected Argon Jet

Modeling study is performed to reveal the momentum and heat/mass transfer characteristics of a turbulent or laminar plasma reactor consisting of an argon plasma jet issuing into ambient air and interacting with a co-axially counter-injected argon jet. The combined-diffusion-coefficient method and the turbulence-enhanced combined-diffusion-coefficient method are employed to treat the diffusion of argon in the argon–air mixture for the laminar and the turbulent regimes, respectively. Modeling results presented include the streamline, isotherm and argon mass fraction distributions for the cases with different jet-inlet parameters and different distances between the counter-injected jet exit and the plasma torch exit. It is shown that there exists a quench layer with steep temperature gradients inside the reactor; a great amount of ambient air is always entrained into the plasma reactor; and the flow direction of the entrained air, the location and shape of the quench layer are dependent on the momentum flux ratio of the plasma jet to the counter-injected cold gas. Two quite different flow patterns are obtained at higher and lower momentum flux ratios, and thus there exists a critical momentum flux ratio to separate the different flow patterns and to obtain the widest quench layer. There exists a high argon concentration or even ‘air-free’ channel along the reactor axis. No appreciable difference is found between the turbulent and laminar plasma reactors in their overall plasma parameter distributions and the quench layer locations, but the values of the critical momentum flux ratio are somewhat different.     

Gas flow dynamics of an inductively coupled plasma discharge

Temperature and velocity distributions within a low power (0.5–0.75 kW) inductively coupled plasma discharge operating in argon have ben determined for various operating parameters including aerosol gas now rate, plasma gas flow rate, aerosol nozzle diameter, and input power level. All measurements were made without samples. The channel formed in the discharge by the aerosol gas now exhibits temperature and velocity characteristics which distinguishes it from the plasma core and wall regions. Maximum plasma temperature of 8700 ± 300 K and channel gas velocity of 120 $\text{m}\text{s}$ were found.     

Spectroscopic Characterization of a Steam Arc Cutting Torch

Optical emission spectroscopy has been used to investigate the characteristics of a plasma jet produced by a steam arc cutting torch operated in air at atmospheric pressure. A procedure has been developed for simultaneous determination of temperature and pressure in the plasma jet as well as an effective nonequilibrium factor. It is based on comparison of a few experimental and simulated spectral quantities. The experimental data were obtained from the spectrum of H_β and OII lines centred at 480 nm. The existence of the shock wave structure characteristic of an underexpanded jet can clearly be deduced from the measured properties. In the first expansion region, the centreline pressure drops from about 1.4 atm at the nozzle exit to about 0.7 atm a few tenths of millimeter downstream. On the contrary, the centreline temperature remains almost unchanged within this region and reaches the value of about 23,000 K.