Exploring magnetic properties of ultrathin epitaxial magnetic structures using magneto-optical techniques

We describe magneto-optic Kerr effect studies of ultrathin Fe and Ni films on single crystal surfaces of Ag and Cu. Monolayer Fe films on Ag(100) exhibit the theoretically predicted spin-orbit anisotropy, but also yield some interesting discrepancies between behavior predicted by Kerr effect and by spin-polarized photoemission experiments. Layer-dependent studies of the magnetic moment of Ni on Ag(111) and Ag(100) suggest sp-d hybridization effects quench the first layer magnetic moment on Ag(111) but not on Ag(100). Temperature dependent studies of thin film magnetization obtained from Kerr effect measurements yield thickness dependent Curie temperatures, and critical exponents for several thin film systems.     

X-ray scattering in multilayer structures with quantum dots

The scattering of X-rays on multilayer semiconductor structures with quantum dots was studied. Equations describing coherent and diffuse scattering in superlattices with an arbitrary number of layers in the period were obtained. Numerical simulation of coherent and diffuse scattering of X-rays from laser superlattices with different number of periods was performed to analyze the experimental data. A physical interpretation of the angular displacement of the coherent peaks from the maxima of diffuse scattering observed in the experiment is given.     

Determination of strain in epitaxial semiconductor structures by high-resolution X-ray diffraction

High-resolution X-ray diffraction is used to obtain the strain profile of a wide range of epitaxial semiconductor samples. The samples are divided into five categories: Strained layers on a substrate, (partly) relaxed layers on a substrate, strained-layer superlattice structures, multiple relaxed layers and relaxed superlattice structures and ionimplanted samples. For each category a measurement strategy and analysis method is given. Representative examples for each category are shown.     

New focusing multilayer structures for X-ray and VUV plasma spectroscopy

We investigate the spectral characteristics of new focusing multilayer structures used as dispersive elements in a high-transmission X-ray spectrometer with cylindrical geometry (Hamos scheme): W/B₄C structures in a wavelength range of λ = 8.0?9.5 Å and Cr/Sc structures in a range of λ = 30?40 Å (the range is not accessible for natural crystals). The results of demonstration experiments on laser-produced plasma spectra recording are considered. It is shown that the luminosity of a Hamos spectrometer with multilayer dispersive elements is an order of magnitude higher than the luminosity of grazing-incidence grating spectrographs with a comparable spectral resolution.     

On the properties of photovoltaic X-ray detectors based on GaAs epitaxial structures

Operation of a new photovoltaic detector of X-ray bremsstrahlung based on GaAs epitaxial structures at room temperature without bias is studied. The efficiency of the absorbed energy conversion into short-circuit current is calculated from the measured photoresponses for the photon energies in the range from 12 to 120 keV. In this energy range, the absorption in GaAs is governed by photoelectric effect. The efficiency of the X-ray bremsstrahlung energy conversion in GaAs peaks at 80 keV. It is suggested that the X-ray absorption of a thin 50-μm detector can be enhanced by applying an inclined irradiation scheme. The effect is most pronounced in the region of hard X-rays.     

Interference amplification of the magneto-optic Kerr effect in multilayer structures in the X-ray range

The problem of X-ray reflection from multilayer structures with magnetic layers has been solved. The matrix for reflection of electromagnetic waves from such structures has been calculated analytically in kinematical and dynamical approximations. It is shown that not only reflection coefficients, but also magneto-optic effects are enhanced near Bragg peak. The possibility of measuring magneto-optic effects in multilayer structures without using synchrotron radiation has been estimated.     

Development of laser deposited multilayer zone plate structures for soft X-ray radiation

As a novel approach, the combination of pulsed laser deposition and focused ion beam was applied to fabricate different types of multilayer zone plate structures for soft X-ray applications. For this purpose, high quality non-periodic ZrO₂/Ti multilayers were deposited by pulsed laser deposition on planar Si substrates and on rotating steel wires with layer thicknesses according to the Fresnel zone plate law. Linear focusing optics were fabricated by cutting slices out of the multilayers by focused ion beam and placing them directly over pinholes within Si₃N₄ substrates. Additionally, it was shown that laser deposition of depth-graded multilayers on a wire is also a promising way for building up multilayer zone plates with point focus. First experiments using a table-top X-ray source based on a laser-induced plasma show that the determined focal length and spatial resolution of the fabricated multilayer Laue lens corresponds to the designed optic.     

X-ray and vacuum-ultraviolet plasma spectroscopy with the use of new focusing multilayer structures

The spectra of a laser plasma in the soft x-ray (0.8–0.95 nm) and vacuum ultraviolet (3–4 nm) ranges are recorded with the use of new focusing multilayer structures. It is demonstrated that the electron temperature of the light-element plasma produced by a laser pulse with an energy of ～1 mJ can be measured by using the relative intensities of the satellites and the lines of ions with different charges.     

Lateral shift of X-ray beams and determination of phase in reflectometry of multilayer periodic structures

Lateral shift of X-ray beams during Bragg’s reflection from a multilayer periodic structure (MS) is studied analytically and numerically. The field distribution in the MS, as well as the displacement of reflected and transmitted beams are determined. Analytic expressions for the shifts are derived in the approximation of spectrally narrow beams. Since the shift is controlled by the phase of the reflectance (transmittance), it is possible in principle to extract information concerning the phase of reflection (transmission) by measuring the spatial shift.     

Computer simulation of interdiffusion in polycrystalline thin film couples

Computer simulation of superimposed lattice, grain boundary and surface diffusion, characteristic for polycrystalline thin film diffusion systems, was performed by way of discretisation of the nonlinear diffusion law. In order to give a vivid impression how such a complex process takes place under some typical conditions we have chosen pseudo three-dimensional computer plots of the spacial distribution of the concentration instead of the commonly used iso-concentration diagrams. The following cases are considered:

Study of multilayer packaging delamination mechanisms using different surface analysis techniques

Multilayer packaging, consisting of different layers joined by using an adhesive or an extrusion process, is widely used to promote different products, such as food, cosmetics, etc. The main disadvantage in using this form of packaging is the delamination process. In this work, different surface techniques (X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy and attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy) are used to analyse the delaminated surfaces in order to study the mechanisms that cause delamination of multilayer packaging. According to our results, the reaction of migrated molecules with adhesive-aluminium bonds is the main cause of the chemical delamination process. In contrast, the delamination of extruded materials would seem to be caused by the breaking of Van der Waals bonds.     

Vertical transport in multilayer semiconductor structures

The judicious design of multilayer semiconductor systems, grown by MBE or MOCVD, has made possible new studies of tunnelling, hot-electron injection, avalanching, photoresponse, and other phenomena in III–V semiconductors. Some recent progress is reviewed.     

New approach to the X-ray diffraction analysis of test structures during flow calibration in epitaxial growth reactors

The high-resolution X-ray diffractometry (HRXRD) technique is known as a powerful tool for analyzing epitaxial heterostructures. However, standard analysis procedures do not allow the layer growth time to be used as a fixed parameter during HRXRD spectra analysis. The growth time in modern facilities is measured with a high degree of accuracy, which increases the reliability of HRXRD analysis particularly in the case of spectra with reduced quality or complex heterostructures consisting of a large number of individual homogeneous layers. A new algorithm is based on using flow rates of deposited components as variable parameters, while the layer growth times are taken as fixed parameters. A particular feature of this new approach is associated with the fact that the known growth time for each heterostructure layer is directly included into the algorithm for adjustment of the calculated spectrum to the experimental X-ray diffraction spectrum (HRXRD). The flows of deposited layers are variable parameters and, thus, the algorithm turned out to be very efficient for calibrating flow controllers in epitaxial growth reactors. The algorithm allows for reliable estimation of the flow even in the case of poorly informative HRXRD spectra.     

Laser picosecond acoustics in multilayer structures

The field of laser picosecond acoustics has thrived owing to the ease of detection of propagating picosecond acoustic pulses through changes in optical reflectance. Reflectance changes are caused by the inhomogeneous modulation of the refractive index by the propagating elastic strain through the photoelastic effect and also by the associated induced motion of the surface and interfaces. In this paper we present a general formula for calculating the reflectance change based on a rigorous one-dimensional treatment of the perturbation in optical properties of arbitrary multilayer structures. The theory is applied to the quantitative analysis of data obtained by laser picosecond acoustics for a SiO2-Cr double-layer film on a fused silica substrate. The analysis allows the discrimination of the photoelastic contribution and the surface or interface motion contribution to the experimental reflectance variation.     

Rigorous mode solver for multilayer cylindrical waveguide structures using constraints optimization

A rigorous mode solver for multilayer fiber configurations using a Constraint Optimization method is presented. For an arbitrary number of dielectric or metallic layers the cylindrical wave equations are solved exactly. The transition between the different layers implies a coupling of all field components. Case examples of three unconventional fiber structures (Air-ARROW-fiber, metal-coated fiber, core to ring fiber coupler) are presented. Mode dispersions charts and field characteristics are calculated to demonstrate the performance of the constraints optimization method applied.     

Investigation of supersmooth optical surfaces and multilayer elements using soft X-ray radiation

The aim of this work is application of soft X-ray diffuse scattering for certification of diffractiongrade optical elements and their substrates at a working wavelength. A device is suggested that allows certification under laboratory conditions owing to a dynamic range approaching that of synchrotron radiation sources. Experimental data are compared with data of alternative methods.