Selective sample treatment using molecularly imprinted polymers

The molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) are synthetic polymers possessing specific cavities designed for a target molecule. By a mechanism of molecular recognition, the MIPs are used as selective sorbents for the solid-phase extraction of target analytes from complex matrices. MIPs are often called synthetic antibodies in comparison with immuno-based sorbents; they offer some advantages including easy, cheap and rapid preparation and high thermal and chemical stability. This review describes the use of MIPs in solid-phase extraction with emphasis on their synthesis, the various parameters affecting the selectivity of the extraction, their potential to selectively extract analytes from complex aqueous samples or organic extracts, their on-line coupling with LC and their potential in miniaturized devices.     

Synthesis of core‐shell magnetic molecularly imprinted polymer for the selective determination of imidacloprid in apple samples

This work demonstrates the synthesis and characterization of core‐shell magnetic molecularly imprinted polymers based on surface imprinting using methacryloyl chloride as a functional monomer for the selective extraction of imidacloprid (template) from apple fruit. The characterization analysis results ensured the successful synthesis of the magnetic molecularly imprinted polymers owing to their heterogeneous structure and good magnetic properties. An isothermal binding test was assessed with a pseudo‐second‐order kinetic model, and the kinetic results fit well to the Freundlich isothermal model. The polymers exhibited an adsorption capacity of 5.75 mg/g for the target analyte with a good selective extraction ability. In addition, the polymers can be reused several times without significant performance loss. The molecularly imprinted polymers showed good performance in the analysis of spiked apple sample with a linear range of 0.05–1.0 mg/L, a limit of detection of 0.048 mg/L and a limit of quantification of 0.146 mg/L (S/N = 3/10). The recoveries of the samples were 77.66–96.57% and their respective relative standard deviations were 3.36–0.45%. All the results indicated that the proposed method provided good selective extraction, as qualifying the analytical standards.     

Role of molecularly imprinted polymers for selective determination of environmental pollutants--a review

The molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) are synthetic polymers possessing specific cavities designed for a target molecule. By a mechanism of molecular recognition, the MIPs are used as selective tools for the development of various analytical techniques such as liquid chromatography, capillary electrochromatography, solid-phase extraction (SPE), binding assays and biosensors. This review describes the application of MIPs to the determination of environmental pollutants in these different analytical approaches with a special emphasis on their potential as selective SPE sorbent for the selective extraction of target analytes from complex matrices.     

Synthesis of molecularly imprinted polymers via ring-opening metathesis polymerization for solid-phase extraction of bisphenol A

The use of molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) prepared by ring-opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP) for bisphenol A (BPA) was reported in this article. The resulting MIPs have high imprinting and adsorption capacities, and can be used for separation and determination of BPA in environmental water samples. The successful application of ROMP in the molecular imprinting field is described here. For the first time, two cross-linkers (dicyclopentadiene and 2,5-norbornadiene) and two Grubbs catalysts (first and second generation) were investigated to compare their effects on the binding performance of MIPs. The ROMP technique is able to create the imprinted polymers within 1 h under mild conditions. Furthermore, it can provide MIPs with obvious imprinting effects towards the template, very fast template rebinding kinetics, high binding capacity and appreciable selectivity over structurally related compounds. The adsorption process for MIPs in this study can be completed within 45 min, which is much faster than that of bulk MIPs synthesized by traditional free-radical polymerization. The resulting imprinting polymer was evaluated for its use as a sorbent support in an off-line solid-phase extraction approach to recover BPA from diluted aqueous samples. The optimized extraction protocol resulted in a reliable MISPE method suitable for selective extraction and preconcentration of BPA from tap water, human urine and liquid milk samples. This article demonstrates the practical feasibility of the MIPs prepared via ROMP as solid-phase extraction materials.     

Development of andrographolide molecularly imprinted polymer for solid-phase extraction

A method employing molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) as selective sorbent for solid-phase extraction (SPE) to pretreat samples was developed. The polymers were prepared by precipitation polymerization with andrographolide as template molecule. The structure of MIP was characterized and its static adsorption capacity was measured by the Scatchard equation. In comparison with C(18)-SPE and non-imprinted polymer (NIP) SPE column, MIP-SPE column displays high selectivity and good affinity for andrographolide and dehydroandrographolide for extract of herb Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees (APN). MIP-SPE column capacity was 11.9±0.6 μmol/g and 12.1±0.5 μmol/g for andrographolide and dehydroandrographolide, respectively and was 2-3 times higher than that of other two columns. The precision and accuracy of the method developed were satisfactory with recoveries between 96.4% and 103.8% (RSD 3.1-4.3%, n=5) and 96.0% and 104.2% (RSD 2.9-3.7%, n=5) for andrographolide and dehydroandrographolide, respectively. Various real samples were employed to confirm the feasibility of method. This developed method demonstrates the potential of molecularly imprinted solid phase extraction for rapid, selective, and effective sample pretreatment.     

Design of an imprinted clean-up method for mycophenolic acid in maize

In the present work, the development of imprinted polymers selective towards mycophenolic acid and their application in food analysis are reported for the first time. To synthesize the molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) 4-vinylpyridine and ethyleneglycol dimethacrylate were applied as functional monomer and cross-linker, respectively. Besides the toxin itself, the implementation of structural analogues as templates was evaluated. A molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction (MISPE) procedure was designed for the selective clean-up of maize extracts. Binding experiments and Scatchard analysis indicated the presence of specific binding sites in the imprinted polymers. The imprinting effect varied along with the selected template. The dissociation constant (K(D)) of the higher affinity binding sites ranged from 0.8 μmol/l to 15.6 μmol/l, while the K(D) of the lower affinity binding sites was in the range of 138.5-519.3 μmol/l. The performance of the MIPs throughout the clean-up of spiked maize sample extracts was evaluated and compared with the results obtained when applying a non-imprinted polymer. Depending on the polymers and the spiked concentration, recoveries after MISPE and non-imprinted solid-phase extraction varied respectively from 49% to 84% and from 28% to 31%. The imprinted polymers were superior regarding matrix effect, limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ). LOD ranged from 0.17 μg/kg to 0.25 μg/kg and LOQ varied from 0.57 μg/kg to 0.82 μg/kg. Analysis of 15 maize samples by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry revealed that the MIPs could be excellent sorbents for clean-up of contaminated food samples.     

Preparation of ellagic acid molecularly imprinted polymeric microspheres based on distillation–precipitation polymerization for the efficient purification of a crude extract

Molecularly imprinted polymeric microspheres with a high recognition ability toward the template molecule, ellagic acid, were synthesized based on distillation–precipitation polymerization. The as‐obtained polymers were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, infrared spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis. Static, dynamic, and selective binding tests were adopted to study the binding properties and the molecular recognition ability of the prepared polymers for ellagic acid. The results indicated that the maximum static adsorption capacity of the prepared polymers toward ellagic acid was 37.07 mg/g and the adsorption equilibrium time was about 100 min when the concentration of ellagic acid was 40 mg/mL. Molecularly imprinted polymeric microspheres were also highly selective toward ellagic acid compared with its analogue quercetin. It was found that the content of ellagic acid in the pomegranate peel extract was enhanced from 23 to 86% after such molecularly imprinted solid‐phase extraction process. This work provides an efficient way for effective separation and enrichment of ellagic acid from complex matrix, which is especially valuable in industrial production.     

Evaluation of diazepam-molecularly imprinted microspheres for the separation of diazepam and its main metabolite from body fluid samples

Molecularly imprinted microspheres (MIMs) for the drug diazepam and its main metabolite (nordiazepam) were prepared and used to separate the two species from urine and serum samples via molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction. The specific binding capacity for diazepam was determined to be 1.97 mg/g, resulting in an imprinting factor of 5.8. The MIMs exhibit highly selective binding affinity for tricyclic benzodiazepines. Water-acetonitrile-acetone mixtures were used as the washing solvent and resulted in complete baseline separation, with a recovery of >87% for diazepam and of 88% for nordiazepam. The limits of detection are 21.5 and 24.5 ng/mL, respectively.     

Molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction combined with electrochemical oxidation fluorimetry for the determination of methotrexate in human serum and urine

The method of synthesis and evaluation of molecularly imprinted polymers was reported. As a selective solid-phase extraction sorbent, the polymers were coupled with electrochemical fluorimetry detection for the efficient determination of methotrexate in serum and urine. Methotrexate was preconcentrated in the molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction microcolumn packed with molecularly imprinted polymers, and then eluted. The eluate was detected by fluorescence spectrophotometer after electrochemical oxidation. The conditions of preconcentration, elution, electrochemical oxidation and determination were carefully studied. Under the selected experimental conditions, the calibration graph of the fluorescence intensity versus methotrexate concentration was linear from 4x10(-9) g mL(-1) to 5x10(-7) g mL(-1), and the detection limit was 8.2x10(-10) g mL(-1) (3sigma). The relative standard deviation was 3.92% (n=7) for 1x10(-7) g mL(-1) methotrexate. The experiments showed that the selectivity and sensitivity of fluorimetry could be greatly improved by the proposed method. This method has been successfully applied to the determination of methotrexate. At the same time, the binding characteristics of the polymers to the methotrexate were evaluated by batch and dynamic methods.     

Synthesis and characterization of molecularly imprinted polymers for selective solid-phase extraction of pseudoephedrine

Molecular imprinted solid-phase extraction (MISPE) is a well known technique for the selective extraction and pre-concentration of analytes, are present at low levels in chemically complex materials. Herein, water-soluble, molecularly imprinted polymers (MIP) were prepared for solid-phase extraction of pseudoephedrine hydrochloride (PSE), which was monitored at 256 nm by the UV spectroscopy. MISPE conditions were optimized to allow the selective and determination of PSE in aqueous samples and composite materials, such as biological fluids and human urine. MIP was prepared by precipitation polymerization method, using methacrylic acid as a functional monomer and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate as a cross-linking agent in either acetonitrile or chloroform. The results suggest that the obtained MISPE exhibits high affinity for PSE, and the imprinted polymer demonstrates much higher efficiency than a non-imprinted polymer (NIP). The imprinting-induced extraction was confirmed by the determination of recovery values for NIP (4%) and MIP (80%) polymers, respectively. The binding capacity of the MIP for PSE was found of 47.6 mg g⁻¹.     

Preparation of a molecularly imprinted polymer for the solid-phase extraction of scopolamine with hyoscyamine as a dummy template molecule

Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) selective for scopolamine were produced using hyoscyamine (a close structural analogue) as template molecule. The produced polymers were used as media for solid-phase extraction, exhibiting selective binding properties for the analyte from biological samples. Human and calf urine and serum were processed on the MIP under various extraction protocols. The best performance was observed after loading the analyte in aqueous environment facilitating retention on the MIP by non-selective hydrophobic interactions. The MIPs were subsequently washed using an optimised solvent system to enable selective desorption of the analyte. Other related and non-related compounds were accessed to evaluate molecular recognition properties. Recoveries of up to 79% were achieved for the analyte of interest from biological samples.     

Development of a selective molecularly imprinted polymer-based solid-phase extraction for indomethacin from water samples

A selective molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction (MISPE) for indomethacin (IDM) from water samples was developed. Using IDM as template molecule, acrylamide (AM) or methacrylic acid (MAA) as functional monomer, ethylene dimethacrylate (EDMA) as crosslinker, and bulk or suspension polymerization as the synthetic method, three molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) were synthesized and characterized with a rebinding experiment. It was found that the MIP of AM-EDMA produced by bulk polymerization showed the highest binding capacity for IDM, and so it was chosen for subsequent experiments, such as those testing the selectivity and recognition binding sites. Scatchard analysis revealed that at least two kinds of binding sites formed in the MIP, with the dissociation constants of 7.8 μmol L⁻¹ and 127.2 μmol L⁻¹, respectively. Besides IDM, three structurally related compounds — acemetacin, oxaprozin and ibuprofen — were employed for selectivity tests. It was observed that the MIP exhibited the highest selective rebinding to IDM. Accordingly, the MIP was used as a solid-phase extraction sorbent for the extraction and enrichment of IDM in water samples. The extraction conditions of the MISPE column for IDM were optimized to be: chloroform or water as loading solvent, chloroform with 20% acetonitrile as washing solution, and methanol as eluting solvent. Water samples with or without spiking were extracted by the MISPE column and analyzed by HPLC. No detectable IDM was observed in tap water and the content of IDM in a river water sample was found to be 1.8 ng mL⁻¹. The extraction efficiencies of the MISPE column for IDM in spiked tap and river water were acceptable (87.2% and 83.5%, respectively), demonstrating the feasibility of the prepared MIP for IDM extraction. Figure Molecularly imprinted polymer-based solid-phase extraction for indomethacin     

Selective solid-phase microextraction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in water based on oriented phosphorus-containing titanium oxide nanofibers grown on titanium support prior to high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection

A novel solid-phase microextraction coating of phosphorous-containing titanium oxide composite was developed using titanium fiber as a support and a titanium source by hydrothermal oxidation in a phosphoric acid solution containing hydrogen peroxide. The morphology of the fiber coatings was controlled by the conditions of the hydrothermal oxidation reaction. The oriented nanofiber coating was employed to extract several types of representative aromatic analytes. The experimental results demonstrated that the as-prepared fiber exhibited excellent extraction efficiency toward polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Combined with high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection, main extraction conditions were optimized, including pH, ionic strength, extraction temperature, stirring rate, extraction time and desorption time. The established method presented good linearity from 0.05 to 200 μg/L with limit of detection ranging from 0.012 to 0.126 μg/L. This convenient and green procedure was suitable for the selective extraction and determination of typical polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in environmental water samples. The relative recoveries of 85.8–112% were obtained for the determination of target polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in water samples spiked with 5.0 and 15.0 μg/L. Moreover, the as-prepared fiber showed at least 210 extraction/desorption cycles due to its high mechanical and chemical stability.     

An experimental investigation of the molecularly imprinted polymers as tailor-made sorbents of diazinon

Diazinon imprinted sorbent can be a useful tool for selective enrichment, clean-up, and purification methods. In this study, investigation of synthesis and evaluation of diazinon imprinted polymers has been performed using equilibrium binding experiments. It is possible to use molecularly imprinted polymers as sorbents for anti-choline esterase (Anti-ChE) organophosphate pesticides (Ops). It has been found that MAA monomer is most suitable for the preparation of appropriate diazinon molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs). The type of porogen also influences the binding results. The best porogen for diazinon imprinting is chloroform due to its poor hydrogen bonding capacity.     

安定分子印迹聚合物的制备及应用

以安定为模板分子,通过本体聚合和沉淀聚合的方法合成了分子印迹聚合物材料,考察了交联剂、致孔剂及温度等条件对聚合物材料性能的影响。电镜扫描图片显示本体聚合得到的聚合物呈不规则形状,而沉淀聚合得到的则是微球颗粒,形状规则。吸附实验表明,聚合物微球对安定的最大吸附量约为130μg/g,对奥沙西泮和硝西泮的吸附量约为110μg/g,对安定类化合物具有较高的吸附性能和选择性。通过对比合成现象和聚合物性能,最终选用以DVB为交联剂、乙腈为致孔剂合成的聚合物微球为固相萃取材料填充固相萃取小柱,从饲料及猪尿样品中选择性地分离、富集痕量安定类药物。结合高效液相色谱法检测,奥沙西泮、硝西泮和安定3种药物在0.1～20 mg/L范围内线性良好,相关系数为0.999 6～0.999 9,检出限(S/N=3)为0.03～0.08 mg/L,加标回收率为66%～79%。该方法为安定类药物的检测提供了一种新途径。     

Preparation and application of magnetic molecularly imprinted polymers for the isolation of chelerythrine from Macleaya cordata

A novel type of magnetic molecularly imprinted polymer was prepared for the selective enrichment and isolation of chelerythrine from Macleaya cordata (Willd) R. Br. The magnetic molecularly imprinted polymers were prepared using functional Fe₃O₄@SiO₂ as a magnetic support, chelerythrine as template, methacrylic acid as functional monomer, and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate as cross‐linker. Density functional theory at the B3LYP/6‐31G (d, p) level with Gaussian 09 software was applied to calculate the interaction energies of chelerythrine, methacrylic acid and the complexes formed from chelerythrine and methacrylic acid in different ratios. The structural features and morphology of the synthesized polymers were characterized by using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X‐ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, and vibration sample magnetometry. Adsorption experiments revealed that the magnetic molecularly imprinted polymers possessed rapid kinetics, high selectivity, and a higher binding capacity (7.96 mg/g) to chelerythrine than magnetic molecularly non‐imprinted polymers (2.36 mg/g). The adsorption process was in good agreement with the Langmuir adsorption isotherm and pseudo‐second‐order kinetics models. Furthermore, the magnetic molecularly imprinted polymers were successfully employed as adsorbents for the extraction and enrichment of chelerythrine from Macleaya cordata (Willd) R. Br. The results indicated that the magnetic molecularly imprinted polymers were suitable for the selective adsorption of chelerythrine from complex samples such as natural medical plants.     

Highly selective and non-conventional sorbents for the determination of biomarkers in urine by liquid chromatography

Urine is one of the most extensively analysed biological fluids in clinical and toxicological investigations owing to its high availability and non-invasive collection. The chemical nature of the analytes involved (polarity and thermal instability) makes liquid chromatography the separation technique of choice for compound determination. Moreover, sample treatment based on solid-phase extraction is usually carried out owing to its flexibility and the availability of new sorbent materials with increased selectivity and versatility towards the target compounds. Taking into account these three fundamental points, this review focuses on recent developments in urine pretreatment using highly selective and non-conventional sorbents in solid-phase extraction such as affinity sorbents (immunosorbents and molecularly imprinted polymers), restricted access materials and carbon nanotubes, with emphasis on the new synthesis methods. Their main advantages and shortcomings are presented, together with representative examples in this context.     

Preparation and performance analysis of monodisperse glycidyl methacrylate modified restricted access media-imprinted materials

Using monodisperse poly(glycidyl methacrylate-co-ethylene glycol dimethacrylate) as the matrix, and pefloxacin template molecules, a novel restricted-access medium molecularly imprinted polymers with Bovine serum albumin crosslinked on its surface was prepared through reversible addition–fragmentation chain-transfer polymerization. Then, the obtained material was employed in dispersive solid-phase extraction to analyze the fluoroquinolones in untreated egg samples by high-performance liquid chromatography–ultraviolet detection. Adsorption performance revealed a good binding amount (40.72 mg/g), fast binding kinetics (25 min), satisfactory selectivity, and good ability to eliminate matrix interference. The reusability experiments indicated the materials have good reusable performance after repetition. Under the optimized conditions, restricted access media-molecularly imprinted polymers-dispersive solid-phase extraction was combined with high-performance liquid chromatography–ultraviolet to enrich fluoroquinolones in untreated eggs, good limit of detection (1.31–3.15 μg/L) and high recovery (89.5–96.8%) were obtained. The results showed that the prepared restricted-access material is promising for the direct detection of antibiotics in complex samples.