Carbon Nanomaterials for Targeted Cancer Therapy Drugs: A Critical Review

Cancer represents one of the main causes of human death in developed countries. Most current therapies, unfortunately, carry a number of side effects, such as toxicity and damage to healthy cells, as well as the risk of resistance and recurrence. Therefore, cancer research is trying to develop therapeutic procedures with minimal negative consequences. The use of nanomaterial‐based systems appears to be one of them. In recent years, great progress has been made in the field using nanomaterials with high potential in biomedical applications. Carbon nanomaterials, thanks to their unique physicochemical properties, are gaining more and more popularity in cancer therapy. They are valued especially for their ability to deliver drugs or small therapeutic molecules to these cells. Through surface functionalization, they can specifically target tumor tissues, increasing the therapeutic potential and significantly reducing the adverse effects of therapy. Their potential future use could, therefore, be as vehicles for drug delivery. This review presents the latest findings of research studies using carbon nanomaterials in the treatment of various types of cancer. To carry out this study, different databases such as Web of Science, PubMed, MEDLINE and Google Scholar were employed. The findings of research studies chosen from more than 2000 viewed scientific publications from the last 15 years were compared.     

Recent Applications of Carbon Nanomaterials for microRNA Electrochemical Sensing

MicroRNA (miRNA) is an important tumor marker in the human body, and its early detection has a great influence on the survival rate of patients. Although there are many detection methods for miRNA at present such as northern blotting, real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction, microarrays, and others, electrochemical biosensors have the advantages of low detection cost, small instrument size, simple operation, non-invasive detection and low consumption of reagents and solvents, and thus they play an important role in the early detection of cancer. In addition, with the development of nanotechnology, nano-biosensors show great potential. The application of various nanomaterials in the development of electrochemical biosensor has greatly improved the detection sensitivity of electrochemical biosensor. Among them, carbon nanomaterials which have unique electrical, optical, physical and chemical properties have attracted increasing attention. In particular, they have a large surface area, good biocompatibility and conductivity. Therefore, carbon nanomaterials combined with electrochemical methods can be used to detect miRNA quickly, easily and sensitively. In this review, we systematically review recent applications of different carbon nanomaterials (carbon nanotubes, graphene and its derivatives, graphitic carbon nitride, carbon dots, graphene quantum dots and other carbon nanomaterials) for miRNA electrochemical detection. In addition, we demonstrate the future prospects of electrochemical biosensors modified by carbon nanomaterials for the detection of miRNAs, and some suggestions for their development in the near future.     

Hybrid Polymeric Nanomaterials for siRNA Delivery and Imaging

A combined nanomaterials‐based approach for simultaneous therapy and molecular imaging has powerful potential for efficient treatment and monitoring the prognosis of incurable diseases such as malignant tumors or degenerative diseases. Recent developments of hybrid polymeric nanomaterials for siRNA delivery and imaging are highlighted. A particular focus is on various conjugation and formulation strategies of how to incorporate siRNA and imaging agents onto the surface of functionally active polymer‐coated inorganic nanomaterials such as iron oxide, gold, and quantum‐dot nanoparticles for theranostic applications. These multifunctional nanocarriers may allow real‐time tracking of siRNA as well as visualization of its therapeutic effects in vitro and in vivo.

     

铋基纳米材料在癌症成像诊断与治疗中的应用

随着纳米医学的快速发展,纳米诊疗材料因其兼具诊断和治疗等多功能性而受到越来越多的关注.铋(Bi)基纳米材料具有优异的光学、电学和磁学性质,在肿瘤的诊疗一体化领域具有广阔的应用前景.我们总结了Bi基纳米材料常用的构建方法,重点介绍了其在计算机断层扫描(CT)成像、光声(PA)成像、放射疗法(RT)、光热疗法(PTT)及协...     

Recent Advances in Carbon Nanomaterials for Cancer Phototherapy

Carbon nanomaterials have received great attention from the scientific community over the past few decades because of their unique physical and chemical properties. In this minireview, we will summarize the recent progress of the use of various carbon nanomaterials in the field of cancer phototherapy. The structural characteristics of each category and the surface functionalization strategies of these nanomaterials will be briefly introduced before focusing on their therapeutic applications. Recent advances on their use in photothermal therapy, photodynamic therapy, and combined phototherapies are presented. Moreover, a few challenges and perspectives on the development of carbon nanomaterials for future theranostics are also discussed.     

石墨相碳化氮(g-C3N4)纳米材料在分析化学中的应用进展

石墨相碳化氮(g-C_3N_4)具有类似于石墨烯的片层结构,其独特的电子能带结构、热稳定性以及高化学稳定性,优异的光学、电学性质,使之在生物成像、光、电传感器方面具有广阔的应用前景。该文综述了g-C_3N_4纳米材料在电化学、光学分析等分离分析方面的应用进展,并展望了其发展前景。     

Nitrogen‐Doped Carbon Nanomaterials: Synthesis,Characteristics and Applications

Nonmetallic carbon‐based nanomaterials (CNMs) are important in various potential applications, especially after the emergence of graphene and carbon nanotubes, which demonstrate outstanding properties arising from their unique nanostructures. The pristine graphitic structure of CNMs consists of sp² hybrid C?C bonds and is considered to be neutral in nature with low wettability and poor reactivity. To improve its compatibility with other materials and, hence, for greater applicability, CNMs are generally required to be functionalized effectively and/or doped with heteroatoms in their graphitic frameworks for feasible interfacial interactions. Among the various possible functional/doping elements, nitrogen (N) atoms have received much attention given their potential to fine tune the intrinsic properties, such as the work‐function, charge carrier concentration, surface energy, and polarization, of CNMs. N‐doping improves the surface energy and reactivity with enhanced charge polarization and minimal damage to carbon frameworks. The modified surface energy and chemical activity of N‐doped carbon nanomaterials (NCNMs) can be useful for a broad range of applications, including fuel cells, solar cells, Li‐ion batteries, supercapacitors, chemical catalysts, catalyst supports, and so forth.     

Theranostic Applications of Nanomaterials in Cancer: Drug Delivery, Image-Guided Therapy, and Multifunctional Platforms

Successful cancer management depends on accurate diagnostics along with specific treatment protocols. Current diagnostic techniques need to be improved to provide earlier detection capabilities, and traditional chemotherapy approaches to cancer treatment are limited by lack of specificity and systemic toxicity. This review highlights advances in nanotechnology that have allowed the development of multifunctional platforms for cancer detection, therapy, and monitoring. Nanomaterials can be used as MRI, optical imaging, and photoacoustic imaging contrast agents. When used as drug carriers, nanoformulations can increase tumor exposure to therapeutic agents and result in improved treatment effects by prolonging circulation times, protecting entrapped drugs from degradation, and enhancing tumor uptake through the enhanced permeability and retention effect as well as receptor-mediated endocytosis. Multiple therapeutic agents such as chemotherapy, antiangiogenic, or gene therapy agents can be simultaneously delivered by nanocarriers to tumor sites to enhance the effectiveness of therapy. Additionally, imaging and therapy agents can be co-delivered to provide seamless integration of diagnostics, therapy, and follow-up, and different therapeutic modalities such as chemotherapy and hyperthermia can be co-administered to take advantage of synergistic effects. Liposomes, metallic nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, carbon nanotubes, and quantum dots are examples of nanoformulations that can be used as multifunctional platforms for cancer theranostics. Nanomedicine approaches in cancer have great potential for clinically translatable advances that can positively impact the overall diagnostic and therapeutic process and result in enhanced quality of life for cancer patients. However, a concerted scientific effort is still necessary to fully explore long-term risks, effects, and precautions for safe human use.     

Zinc-Based Metal-Organic Frameworks in Drug Delivery,Cell Imaging,and Sensing

The design and structural frameworks for targeted drug delivery of medicinal compounds and improved cell imaging have been developed with several advantages. However, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are supplemented tremendously for medical uses with efficient efficacy. These MOFs are considered as an absolutely new class of porous materials, extensively used in drug delivery systems, cell imaging, and detecting the analytes, especially for cancer biomarkers, due to their excellent biocompatibility, easy functionalization, high storage capacity, and excellent biodegradability. While Zn-metal centers in MOFs have been found by enhanced efficient detection and improved drug delivery, these Zn-based MOFs have appeared to be safe as elucidated by different cytotoxicity assays for targeted drug delivery. On the other hand, the MOF-based heterogeneous catalyst is durable and can regenerate multiple times without losing activity. Therefore, as functional carriers for drug delivery, cell imaging, and chemosensory, MOFs’ chemical composition and flexible porous structure allowed engineering to improve their medical formulation and functionality. This review summarizes the methodology for fabricating ultrasensitive and selective Zn-MOF-based sensors, as well as their application in early cancer diagnosis and therapy. This review also offers a systematic approach to understanding the development of MOFs as efficient drug carriers and provides new insights on their applications and limitations in utility with possible solutions.     

Carbon Nanozymes: Enzymatic Properties,Catalytic Mechanism,and Applications

Nanozymes have advantages over natural enzymes, such as facile production on large scale, long storage time, low costs, and high stability in harsh environments. Carbon nanomaterials (CNMs), including fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, graphene, carbon quantum dots, and graphene quantum dots, have become a star family in materials science. As a new class of nanozymes, the catalytic activity of CNMs and their hybrids has been extensively reported. In this Minireview, recent progress of CNMs based artificial enzymes, focusing on those with peroxidase‐like activity, has been summarized. The enzymatic properties, catalytic mechanisms, and novel applications of CNM nanozymes in sensing, therapy, and environmental engineering are discussed in detail. Additionally, we also highlight the remaining challenges and unsolved problems. With the fast development of bionanotechnology, the unique enzymatic properties and advantages of CNM nanozymes have received much attention and will continue to be an active and challenging field for the years to come.     

基于碳纳米材料的无酶电化学传感器同时检测抗坏血酸、多巴胺和尿酸

人体中抗坏血酸（AA）、多巴胺（DA）和尿酸（UA）的浓度失调可能导致一系列疾病,如癌症、老年痴呆症、高尿酸血症等,而且这三个物种通常共存于体液中,有接近的氧化还原电位,因此实现三者的同时检测,既具有一定的难度,又具有极其重要的现实意义。近年来用于同时检测AA、DA和UA的电化学传感器取得了令人瞩目的进展,其中碳材料因其成本低廉、导电性好、稳定性好、比表面积大等特点逐渐引起人们的广泛关注。本文综述了基于碳材料构筑的检测AA、DA和UA的无酶电化学传感器的研究进展,对此类电化学传感器的今后发展做了展望。     

纳米粒子在药物传递中的应用

目前,利用纳米粒子传递药物并用于恶性肿瘤组织的靶向识别,进一步提高肿瘤的诊断和治疗水平是一个比较热点的领域,人们期望用制备容易、价格便宜、毒性小的纳米技术来提高肿瘤的治疗效率。然而,由近年的报道来看,所摄入的纳米粒子仅有约0.7%能够到达肿瘤部位,传递效率较低,这无疑加大了治疗应用的难度。本综述中,我们分析了造成纳米粒子靶向药物转运效率较低的原因,包括纳米粒子的转运途径,纳米粒子转运过程中所遇到的屏障,纳米粒子在体内的清除途径等;随后我们介绍了较早应用的聚合物纳米粒子、磁性氧化铁纳米粒子以及目前广泛研究的介孔二氧化硅纳米粒子在药物传递系统构建中的应用情况,还介绍了细胞膜仿生纳米粒子在药物传递系统中的应用;最后,对纳米粒子在药物传递中的研究进行总结和展望。我们希望通过对纳米粒子传递药物的系统研究,进一步促进纳米粒子在药物传递上的研究,加速纳米药物的临床应用。     

Protein-based Nanoparticles: From Drug Delivery to Imaging,Nanocatalysis and Protein Therapy

Proteins and enzymes are versatile biomaterials for a wide range of medical applications due to their high specificity for receptors and substrates, high degradability, low toxicity, and overall good biocompatibility. Protein nanoparticles are formed by the arrangement of several native or modified proteins into nanometer-sized assemblies. In this review, we will focus on artificial nanoparticle systems, where proteins are the main structural element and not just an encapsulated payload. While under natural conditions, only certain proteins form defined aggregates and nanoparticles, chemical modifications or a change in the physical environment can further extend the pool of available building blocks. This allows the assembly of many globular proteins and even enzymes. These advances in preparation methods led to the emergence of new generations of nanosystems that extend beyond transport vehicles to diverse applications, from multifunctional drug delivery to imaging, nanocatalysis and protein therapy.     

Advances in Management of Bladder Cancer—The Role of Photodynamic Therapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a non-invasive and modern form of therapy. It is used in the treatment of non-oncological diseases and more and more often in the treatment of various types of neoplasms in various locations including bladder cancer. The PDT method consists of local or systemic application of a photosensitizer, i.e., a photosensitive compound that accumulates in pathological tissue. Light of appropriate wavelength is absorbed by the photosensitizer molecules, which in turn transfers energy to oxygen or initiates radical processes that leads to selective destruction of diseased cells. The technique enables the selective destruction of malignant cells, as the photocytotoxicity reactions induced by the photosensitizer take place strictly within the pathological tissue. PDT is known to be well tolerated in a clinical setting in patients. In cited papers herein no new safety issues were identified. The development of anti-cancer PDT therapies has greatly accelerated over the last decade. There was no evidence of increased or cumulative toxic effects with each PDT treatment. Many modifications have been made to enhance the effects. Clinically, bladder cancer remains one of the deadliest urological diseases of the urinary system. The subject of this review is the anti-cancer use of PDT, its benefits and possible modifications that may lead to more effective treatments for bladder cancer. Bladder cancer, if localized, would seem to be a good candidate for PDT therapy since this does not involve the toxicity of systemic chemotherapy and can spare normal tissues from damage if properly carried out. It is clear that PDT deserves more investment in clinical research, especially for plant-based photosensitizers. Natural PS isolated from plants and other biological sources can be considered a green approach to PDT in cancer therapy. Currently, PDT is widely used in the treatment of skin cancer, but numerous studies show the advantages of related therapeutic strategies that can help eliminate various types of cancer, including bladder cancer. PDT for bladder cancer in which photosensitizer is locally activated and generates cytotoxic reactive oxygen species and causing cell death, is a modern treatment. Moreover, PDT is an innovative technique in oncologic urology.     

Cell-Penetrating Mitochondrion-Targeting Ligands for the Universal Delivery of Small Molecules,Proteins and Nanomaterials

Mitochondria are key organelles that perform vital cellular functions such as those related to cell survival and death. The targeted delivery of different types of cargos to mitochondria is a well-established strategy to study mitochondrial biology and diseases. Of the various existing mitochondrion-transporting vehicles, most suffer from poor cytosolic entry, low delivery efficiency, limited cargo types, and cumbersome preparation protocols, and none was known to be universally applicable for mitochondrial delivery of different types of cargos (small molecules, proteins, and nanomaterials). Herein, two new cell-penetrating, mitochondrion-targeting ligands (named Mito^Ligand) that are capable of effectively “tagging” small-molecule drugs, native proteins and nanomaterials are disclosed, as well as their corresponding chemoselective conjugation chemistry. Upon successful cellular delivery and rapid endosome escape, the released native cargos were found to be predominantly localized inside mitochondria. Finally, by successfully delivering doxorubicin, a well-known anticancer drug, to the mitochondria of HeLa cells, we showed that the released drug possessed potent cell cytotoxicity, disrupted the mitochondrial membrane potential and finally led to apoptosis. Our strategy thus paves the way for future mitochondrion-targeted therapy with a variety of biologically active agents.     

再谈磷的同素异形体*——磷纳米材料和磷烯

依据磷化学的研究进展全面考察了磷的另一类同素异形体,包括磷纳米材料类和磷烯,它们都是结构特殊的先进材料。详细介绍了它们的制备、组成、结构、性质及其重要应用。     

Synthetization and Functionalization of Natural,Polymer, and Quantum-Based Carbon Nanodots and Their Application in Biomedicine

Carbon nanodots (CNDs) are a developing branch of nanomaterials and nanoscience. This has generated much more interest in the field and class of biomedicine science by way of unique particular properties, such as high stability, great photoluminescence, easy green synthesis, and simple surface modification. Numerous applications, such as bioimaging, biosensing, and treatment, have made use of CNDs. This review describes the most recent developments in CND research and talks about major changes in the understanding of CNDs and their prospects as biomedical tools. The importance of this work lies in the ability of CNDs to overcome many of the limitations associated with traditional materials used in biomedicine, such as toxicity, poor biocompatibility, and limited functionality. Furthermore, the use of CNDs as drug carriers, imaging agents, and sensors has shown great potential in improving the diagnosis and treatment of various diseases. The novelty of this work lies in the diversity of approaches used in the synthesis and functionalization of CNDs, and the unique properties of CNDs that make them versatile tools for biomedicine. In particular, the ability to tune the size, shape, and surface chemistry of CNDs allows for the creation of tailored materials with specific biomedical applications. The review also discusses the challenges and future prospects of CNDs in biomedicine, including the need for standardization and optimization of CND synthesis, functionalization, and characterization protocols.     

稀土掺杂上转换纳米材料在兽药残留检测领域的应用

食品和环境中兽药残留问题时有发生,对人类健康构成很大的潜在威胁。随着人们对美好生活和同一健康的向往和不断追求,对微量甚至痕量兽药残留的分析检测已显得日益迫切和重要。因此,构建对兽药残留进行灵敏、准确、稳定、简便、快速检测的方法已成为一个热点研究领域。稀土掺杂上转换纳米材料(REEs-UCNPs)作为一种新兴的纳米荧光材料,具有独特的反斯托克斯发光性质,由于其具有荧光寿命长、光散射小、激发光生物组织穿透深度大且对组织损伤小等显著优点,在分析检测领域逐步凸显出巨大优势。本文重点介绍了基于REEs-UCNPs构建荧光共振能量转移核酸适配体传感器、磁性纳米颗粒结合核酸装配体传感器、荧光免疫探针以及现场快速检测等在兽药残留检测方面的研究进展,并对其应用前景进行了探讨和展望。     

Customized Bio‐functionalization of Nanocomposite Carbon Paste Electrodes for Electrochemical Sensing: A Mini Review

Over the past few decades, the (bio)functionalization of carbon nanomaterials (CNMs), such as nanohorns, carbon nanotubes, graphene, graphite and related with a wide range of (bio)modifiers have been extensively studied for their incorporation on different pure metal or carbon electrode surfaces via drop‐casting. However, CNMs are also shown to be important functional additives for polymers, having great potential to produce rigid nanocomposite materials with a range of enhanced properties, including mechanical, optical, electrical, thermal and electrochemical. The high malleability derived from the host polymer allows alternative strategies that can be carried out in order to incorporate different types of (bio)modifiers in/on/into a polymeric nanocomposite electrode. Accordingly, this mini review overviews the main methodologies used for the bio‐functionalization of electrochemical transducers based on nanocomposite carbon paste electrodes (NC‐CPEs). Additionally, the most extensively (bio)modifiers used in electrochemical (bio)sensing, together with their various electrocatalytical performance are also discussed, fact that might serve as a general outlook for planning further research.     

碳纳米管在药物和基因转运领域的研究进展

当前,国内外的许多研究小组都致力于开发出新型有效的药物和基因转运系统,用于改善多种治疗因子的药理学作用并降低其毒性。在纳米材料这一类中,碳纳米管（Carbon Nanotubes, CNTs）正逐步引起人们的关注。功能化的CNTs的两个关键优势在于它具有很强的细胞穿透能力和较低的细胞毒性,使其在药物和基因转运领域中的应用成为可能。CNTs可通过形成稳定的共价键或形成以非共价键为基础的超分子结合物来运载肽类、蛋白质、核酸和药物等活性分子,并将其运送至特定的组织、器官中以表达特殊的生物学功能。针对这一研究热点,本文综述了近几年国内外关于碳纳米管在药物和基因转运领域中的应用进展,并探讨了其毒性,以期为这一领域中的研究工作者提供参考。