Miscibility and cure kinetics studies on blends of bisphenol-A polycarbonate and tetraglycidyl-4,4′-diaminodiphenylmethane epoxy cured with an amine

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) has been applied to characterize the glass transition behavior of the blends formed by bisphenol-A polycarbonate (PC) with a tetrafunctional epoxy (tetraglycidyl-4,4′-diaminodiphenyl methane, TGDDM) cured with 4,4′-diaminodiphenylsulphone (DDS). A rare miscibility in the complete composition range has been demonstrated in these blends. Additionally, the blend morphology was examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and a homogeneous single-phase PC/epoxy network has been observed in the blends of all compositions. Moreover, polycarbonate incorporation has been found to exert a distinct effect on the cure behavior of the epoxy blends. The cure reaction rates for the epoxy-PC blends were significantly higher due to the presence of PC. In addition, the cure mechanism of the epoxy blends was no longer autocatalytic. An n-th order reaction mechanism with n = 1.2 to 1.5 has been observed for the blends of DDS-cured epoxy with PC of various compositions studied using DSC. The proposed n-th order kinetic model has been found to describe well the cure behavior of the epoxy/PC blends up to the vitrification point. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Design of miscible polyolefin copolymer blends

Theoretical guidelines are established for designing miscible blends of amorphous polyolefin copolymers. On the basis of calculations for an athermal and incompressible model of copolymer melts, limits are placed on the compositions and structural differences between blend components that are consistent with thermodynamic stability of a single liquid phase. Specific cases analyzed include binary blends of random copolymers containing short branches and blends of graft polymers with long flexible branches, either periodically or randomly placed. The predictions are shown to be in good agreement with recent experimental studies of miscibility in model polyolefin copolymer blends. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Transmission electron microscopy study of phase morphology in polypropylene/ethylene-octene copolymer blends

Blends of polypropylene (PP) and ethylene-octene copolymers (EOC) were investigated by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The EOC contained 28, 37, 40 or 52 wt% of octene. Only the 50/50 PP/EOC ratio was used for all blends. None of the blends was fully miscible, there was always two-phase morphology. TEM observation followed by image analysis by ImageJ software revealed that the largest particles were in blend containing EOC-28 and the smallest were in blend with EOC-52. The coarsening rate at 200 °C was evaluated by TEM. The glass transition temperature (T_g) shift indicated partial miscibility. Partial miscibility was then confirmed by direct observation of bright PP lamellae in EOC dark phase.     

Miscibility diagrams of random copolymer blend systems

The miscibility of copolymers A_xB_1?x and A_yB_1?y, derived from the same monomer pair (A, B) but differing in composition, was studied. The systems (A, B) were (S, MMA), (BMA, MMA), (S, BMA), and (CIS, BMA) (S: styrene, CIS: p-chlorostyrene, MMA: methylmethacrylate, BMA: n-butylmethacrylate). Miscibility diagrams were recorded, at low and high temperatures, using cast films and dry films. All blend systems feature hightemperature miscibility gaps. Unusual effects of the compositions x and y on miscibility in blends A_xB_1?x/A_yB_1?y were observed. The classical prediction that miscibility should depend only on the composition difference |x – y| usually is too simple. It appears necessary to consider dyad interactions.     

Flame retardant epoxy resins based on diglycidyl ether of (2,5-dihydroxyphenyl)diphenyl phosphine oxide

Phosphine oxide-containing epoxy resins were prepared from diglycidyl ether of (2,5-dihydroxyphenyl)diphenyl phosphine oxide and diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A by crosslinking with 4,4′-diaminodiphenylmethane. Several (2,5-dihydroxyphenyl)diphenyl phosphine oxide/diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A molar ratios were used to obtain materials with different phosphorus content. The properties of the thermosetting materials were evaluated by differential scanning calorimetry, dynamic mechanical analysis, thermogravimetric analysis, and limiting oxygen index and related to the phosphorus content. Thermal and thermooxidative degradation was studied by GC/MS, ³¹P MAS NMR spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy. Limiting oxygen index values indicate good flame retardant properties that are related to the formation of a protective phosphorus-rich layer that slowed down the degradation and prevented it from being total. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 45: 2142–2151, 2007     

The phase behavior of tetramethyl bisphenol-A polyarylate/aliphatic polyester blends

The phase behavior of blends of tetramethyl bisphenol-A polyarylate (TMPAr) with various linear aliphatic polyesters characterized by the ratio of aliphatic carbons to ester groups in the repeating unit, CH₂/COO = 3 ∼ 9, was examined by differential scanning calorimetry and dynamic mechanical analysis. TMPAr/aliphatic polyester blends prepared by solvent casting were found to be miscible when the CH₂/COO ratio of aliphatic polyesters was larger than 4 and up to 9. The thermodynamic interaction parameter, B for the miscible blends was determined by the analysis of the depression of the melting point of polyester using the Hoffman-Weeks method. From the analysis of the heat of mixing data using a binary interaction model, it was concluded that strong unfavorable intramolecular interaction exists between the  CH₂ and  COO units in aliphatic polyesters and that four substituted methyl groups produces more favorable effects on the miscibility TMPAr with aliphatic polyesters. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Polym Sci 36 : 201–212, 1998     

Curing kinetics and thermal stability of diglycidyl ether of bisphenol

Curing kinetics of diglycidyl ether of bisphenol-A (DGEBA) in the presence of varying molar ratios of aromatic imide-amines and 4,4′-diaminodiphenylsulfone (DDS) were investigated by the dynamic differential scanning calorimetry. The imide-amines were prepared by reacting 1 mole of benzophenone 3,3′,4,4′-tetracarboxylic acid dianhydride (B) with 2.5 moles of 4,4′-diaminodiphenyl ether (E)/ or 4,4′-diaminodiphenyl methane (M)/ or 4,4′-diaminodiphenylsulfone (S) and designated as BE/ or BM/ or BS. The mixture of imide-amines and DDS at ratio of 0:1, 0.25:0.75, 0.5:0.5, 0.75:0.25 and 1:0 were used to investigate the curing behaviour of DGEBA. The multiple heating rate method (5, 10, 15 and 20°C min⁻¹) was used to study the curing kinetics of epoxy resins. The peak exotherm temperature was found to be dependent on the heating rate, structure of imide-amines as well as on the ratio of imide-amine: DDS used. A broad exotherm was observed in the temperature range of 180–230°C on curing with mixture of imide-amines and DDS. Curing of DGEBA with mixture of imide-amines and/or DDS resulted in a decrease in characteristic curing temperatures. Activation energy of curing reaction as determined in accordance to the Ozawa’s method was found to be dependent on the structure of amine. The thermal stability of the isothermally cured resins was also evaluated using dynamic thermogravimetry in a nitrogen atmosphere. The char yield was highest in case of resins cured using mixture of DDS: BS (0.25:0.75; EBS-3), DDS: BM (0.5: 0.5; EBM-2) and DDS: BE (0.5: 0.5; EBE-2).     

Structure and properties for binary blends of isotactic-polypropylene with ethylene-α-olefin copolymer. 1. Crystallization and morphology

Morphology and isothermal growth rates of spherulites for the binary blends consisting of an isotactic polypropylene (i-PP) and an ethylene-1-hexene rubber (EHR) were examined as a function of the crystallization temperature ranging from 388 K to 418 K. In this study, two types of EHR's were employed: “ethylene rich” EHR and “1-hexene rich” EHR. The blends of i-PP with the EHR of 51 mol % 1-hexene are miscible in the molten state, whereas the blends with the EHR of 33 mol % 1-hexene are immiscible in the molten state. It is found that the isothermal spherulite growth rate of the miscible i-PP/EHR blends decreases with increasing the EHR fraction, whereas the spherulite growth rate of the immiscible i-PP/EHR blends is independent of the blend composition and is the same as that of the i-PP. Optical microscope observation of the miscible blends crystallized isothermally shows that there are no rubber domains either in the intraspherulitic or in the interspherulitic contact regions. On the other hand, the immiscible i-PP/EHR blends show a phase-separated morphology. Furthermore, the number of tangential lamellae of the miscible i-PP/EHR blends is found to be increased by blending of the EHR, leading to the spherulite with negative birefringence. The sign of birefringence of spherulites is unaffected by the regime transition as well as by the fold surface free energy. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Polym Sci B: Polym Phys 35 : 953–961, 1997     

Hydrogen bonding interactions,crystallization, and surface hydrophobicity in nanostructured epoxy/block copolymer blends

Hydrogen bonding interactions, phase behavior, crystallization, and surface hydrophobicity in nanostructured blend of bisphenol A‐type epoxy resin (ER), for example, diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A (DGEBA) and poly(ε‐caprolactone)‐block‐poly(dimethyl siloxane)‐block‐poly(ε‐caprolactone) (PCL–PDMS–PCL) triblock copolymer were investigated by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, transmission electron microscopy, small‐angle X‐ray scattering, and contact angle measurements. The PCL–PDMS–PCL triblock copolymer consisted of two epoxy‐miscible PCL blocks and an epoxy‐immiscible PDMS block. The cured ER/PCL–PDMS–PCL blends showed composition‐dependent nanostructures from spherical and worm‐like microdomains to lamellar morphology. FTIR study revealed the existence of hydrogen bonding interactions between the PCL blocks and the cured epoxy, which was responsible for their miscibility. The overall crystallization rate of the PCL blocks in the blend decreased remarkably with increasing ER content, whereas the melting point was slightly depressed in the blends. The surface hydrophobicity of the cured ER increased upon addition of the block copolymer, whereas the surface free energy (γ_s) values decreased with increasing block copolymer concentration. The hydrophilicity of the epoxy could be reduced through blending with the PCL–PDMS–PCL block copolymer that contained a hydrophobic PDMS block. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part B: Polym Phys 48: 790–800, 2010     

Poly(vinyl pyrrolidone-co-vinyl acetate)–cellulose acetate blends as novel pervaporation membranes for ethanol–ethyl tertio-butyl ether separation

The design of high-performance pervaporation membranes for the selective removal of ethanol from ethyl t-butyl ether (ETBE) was performed by using the polymer blending method. Binary blends of cellulose acetate or cellulose triacetate with a specific copolymer, poly(vinyl pyrrolidone-co-vinyl acetate), were studied by pycnometry, differential scanning calorimetry, infrared spectroscopy, solvent–mixture sorption and pervaporation.The sorption extent and especially the permeability of the blend membranes to the ethanol–ETBE azeotropic mixture increases greatly with the copolymer content with quasi-constant and high selectivity. This behavior is attributed to the specific interactions of amide C=O groups (a strong Lewis-base) in the copolymer with ethanol. The resulting high-performance membranes were stable at low temperatures but showed some performance alteration, at temperatures exceeding 80°C, because of copolymer extraction by the solvent mixture. The different behaviors of the same membrane at high and low temperatures were explained in terms of copolymer chain reptation, which was possible in the rubbery state but not in the glassy state. A crosslinking of the two polymers via urethane bonds led to perfectly stable high-performance membranes for the target application. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Novel polymer blends based on poly(ether-urethane) ionomer and ion-containing styrene copolymer

The structure-property relationships of thermoplastic polymer blends based on poly(ether-urethane) ionomer (PEUI) and ion-containing styrene-acrylic acid copolymer (S-co-AA(K)) have been investigated by using DMTA, DSC and TGA, as well as tensile tests. Convergence of the glass transition temperature (T_g) values of the PEUI and the S-co-AA(K) components in the blends studied, as compared to the individual polymers, was found and explained by improving compatibility of the components due to increasing effective density of physical networks formed by ion-dipole and ion-ion interactions of ionic groups of the components. Character of E'=f(T) and E'=f(T) dependencies confirms the increase of the effective density of physical networks in the compositions studied compared to individual PEUI and S-co-AA(K). Improvement of end-use properties, i.e. thermal stability and tensile properties has been found for the PEUI/S-co-AA(K) compositions with lower content of S-co-AA(K) (i.e. <10 mass%) and explained by formation of additional network of intermolecular ionic bonds between the functional groups of PEUI and S-co-AA(K).     

Isothermal cure kinetics of uncatalyzed and catalyzed diglycidyl ether of bisphenol-A/carboxylated polyester hybrid powder coating

The thermal cure behavior of diglycidyl ether bisphenol-A/carboxylated polyester hybrid powder coating system in the absence and presence of catalyst was monitored using differential scanning calorimetry. Curing temperatures were between 160 and 200?°C. The experimental results showed an autocatalytic behavior of the reaction, which could be described by the model proposed by Kamal. This model includes two rate constants k ₁ and k ₂ and two reaction orders m and n. The activation energies E _a1 and E _a2 of these rate constants were 51.7 and 42.3?kJ/mol for uncatalyzed cure reaction and 40.6 and 35.0?kJ/mol for externally catalyzed reaction. The average order of the overall reaction was found to be 2.45 and 2.72 for uncatalyzed and catalyzed system, respectively. Except for the late stage of cure reaction, the model agreed well with the experimental data, especially at high temperatures and in externally catalyzed cure reaction. A diffusion factor was introduced into the model to account for the effect of diffusion on the cure rate. The modified model greatly improved the predicated data at the late stage of cure reaction.     

均聚物/共聚物共混体系的相行为研究进展

通过控制均聚物与共聚物共混过程中的相行为,能够得到许多性能优异的材料。本文从理论和实验两方面总结了影响均聚物／共聚物共混体系相容性和形态结构的因素,主要包括均聚物的分子量、浓度,共聚物的组成、结构、浓度,与均聚物相应的共聚物组分的分子量,共聚物分子内的相互作用,均聚物与共聚物分子间的相互作用等。     

In situ real-time monitoring of a diglycidyl ether of bisphenol a epoxy resin modified with poly(etherimide)/polysulphone blends by simultaneous dielectric/near-infrared spectroscopy

Simultaneous dielectric and near infrared measurements were performed in “real-time” to follow polymerisation reactions on blends of a diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A (DGEBA) epoxy resin with 4,4′-diaminodiphenylmethane (DDM) hardener and a mixture of polysulphone (PSU) and polyetherimide (PEI) as modifier. All the blends had a 10 wt% of PSU/PEI mixture. The effect of the PEI/PSU ratio in the mixture was studied. Monitoring of the α-relaxation (related to vitrification) was performed by dielectric measurements, while epoxy conversion was followed by near infrared spectroscopy. The effect of the PEI/PSU ratio on this behaviour was studied, as well as that of the curing temperature. Obtained results were compared with that of the blends with neat PSU and PEI as modifiers.     

Characterization of extruded ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer based barrier blends with interest in food packaging applications

Based on previous work a number of optimum extruded blends with high contents of a high barrier ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer were selected and characterized in terms of phase morphology, water sorption and barrier properties. Blend components were an ethylene vinyl-alcohol copolymer (EVOH with 32 mol% ethylene), an amorphous polyamide (aPA) and a nylon-containing ionomer. A fine two phase structure was found for these blends in all cases. However, Raman spectroscopy results indicated a poor interface interaction between the blend components in the case of the EVOH/aPA blends. Higher interface interaction had been previously found in the dry EVOH/ionomer blends. Equilibrium moisture solubility and diffusion were found to be higher than expected from simple additivity. However, the oxygen transmission rate was found to be clearly lower than expected from the rule of mixtures, particularly under dry conditions, fitting closely a simple Maxwell model.     

Fourier transform infrared studies of ionic interactions in perfluorinated acid copolymer blends

Ionic interactions have been shown to enhance polymer–polymer miscibility in several highly dissimilar blend systems. In some cases, the miscibility is due to proton transfer from an acidic site on one polymer to a basic site on another, which leads to ion–ion interactions. Studies that have focused on the formation of ionomer blends from highly dissimilar materials, such as fluorocarbons and hydrocarbons or aromatics and aliphatics of widely differing glass transitions, have shown that in the absence of ionic interactions, these materials are immiscible. In this study, we have used Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy techniques, both qualitatively and semiquantitatively, to evaluate the extent of the proton‐transfer mechanism in the enhancement of miscibility in perfluorinated acid copolymer/poly(ethyl acrylate) blends. The perfluorinated acid copolymer contains sulfonic acid groups, whereas the poly(ethyl acrylate) has been modified by the introduction of various amounts of 4‐vinyl pyridine groups as comonomers in the polymer chains. The proton‐transfer mechanism in this case consists of the transfer of the proton on the sulfonic acid group to the nitrogen on the pyridine group, forming a pyridinium cation and a sulfonate anion pair. FTIR has been used to distinguish between the pyridine and pyridinium groups through their absorption bands at 1416 and 1642 cm^?1, respectively. The relative intensities of these bands, as a function of the molar concentration of the pyridine comonomers in the blend, provides a direct quantitative indication of the extent of proton transfer occurring in the system. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part B: Polym Phys 41: 1814–1823, 2003     

Nanoscale confinement effects on the relaxation dynamics in networks of diglycidyl ether of bisphenol-A and low-molecular-weight poly(ethylene oxide)

Thermoplastic poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) (Mw(PEO) approximately 4000) has been used to prepare thermosetting nanocomposites incorporating diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A (DGEBA) epoxy oligomer. Blends with various PEO/DGEBA weight ratios were cured using stoichiometric portions of 4,4'-diaminodiphenylmethane. The resulting semi-interpenetrating polymer networks were studied by several techniques. Nanoscale confinement effects, thermal (glass transition, melting and crystallization temperatures) and structural features of our materials are similar to those for networks with much higher Mw(PEO) and different curing agents; however, the polyether crystallization onset occurs in our case at a lower PEO concentration; shorter PEO chains organize themselves more easily into crystalline domains. Very low estimates of the k parameter of the Gordon-Taylor equation, used to fit the compositional dependences of the dielectric and calorimetric glass transition temperatures, and a strong plasticization of the motion of the glyceryl segments (beta-relaxation) in the epoxy resin were observed. These illustrate an intensified weakening in the strength of the intermolecular interactions in the modified networks, as compared to the high strength of the self-association of hydroxyls in the neat resin. The significance of hydrogen-bonding interactions between the components for obtaining structurally homogeneous thermoset-i-thermoplastic networks is discussed.     

Kinetics of curing and thermal degradation of hyperbranched epoxy (HTDE)/diglycidyl ether of bisphenol-A epoxy hybrid resin

Hyperbranched epoxy resin (HTDE) has relatively low viscosity and high molecular mass and holds great promise as a functional additive for enhancing the strength and toughness of thermosetting resins. In this work, the curing and thermal degradation kinetics of HTDE/diglycidyl ether of bisphenol-A epoxy (DGEBA) hybrid resin were studied in detail using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TG) techniques by Coats–Redfern model. The effect of molecular mass or generation and content of HTME on the activation energy, reaction order, and curing time were discussed; the results indicated that HTDE could accelerate the curing speed and reduce the activation energy and reaction order of the curing reaction.