Rheology of conductive ink flow for printed electronics on a microfluidic chip

Printed electronics have recently attracted extensive attention due to their superior productivity to conventional semiconductor fabrication methods. To develop printing devices optimized for printed electronics, numerical studies on ink flows are often necessary, and, therefore, it is critical to provide accurate ink properties for reliable numerical results. However, it is difficult to find such data in literature since inks for printed electronics contains conductive metallic nanoparticles and they are not only non-Newtonian but expensive. Thus, we propose utilizing a microfluidic chip to investigate rheological properties of conductive inks. By using micro particle image velocimeter along with an immersion oil technique, we examine the flow characteristics of two commercial conductive inks containing Ag nanoparticles on microfluidic chips. We found that the ink flows show a stronger shear-thinning behavior as the Ag content increases. Finally, suitable rheological models applicable to numerical simulations for those inks are suggested after comparing the experimental data to frequently used rheological models.     

Simulation of non-Newtonian ink transfer between two separating plates for gravure-offset printing

The inks used in gravure-offset printing are non-Newtonian fluids with higher viscosities and lower surface tensions compared to Newtonian fluids. This paper examines the transfer of a non-Newtonian ink between two parallel plates when the top plate is moved upward with a constant velocity while the bottom plate is held fixed. Numerical simulations were carried out using the Carreau model to explore the behavior of a non-Newtonian ink in gravure-offset printing. The volume of fluid (VOF) model was adopted to demonstrate the stretching and break-up behaviors of the ink. The results indicate that the ink transfer ratio is greatly influenced by the contact angle, especially the contact angle at the upper plate (α). For lower values of α, oscillatory or unstable behavior of the position of minimum thickness of the ink between the two parallel plates during the stretching period is observed. This oscillation gradually diminishes as the contact angle at the upper plate is increased. Moreover, the number of satellite droplets increases as the velocity of the upper plate is increased. The surface tension of the conductive ink shows a positive impact on the ink transfer ratio to the upper plate. Indeed, the velocity of the upper plate has a significant influence on the ink transfer in gravure-offset printing when the Capillary number (Ca) is greater than 1 and the surface tension dominates over the ink transfer process when Ca is less than 1.     

3D打印多孔热固性聚酰亚胺含油复合材料

以氯化钠(NaCl)作为致孔剂与流变性能调节剂,碳纤维(CF)作为增强填料与流变性能调节剂,苯乙炔基封端聚酰胺酸溶液(PAA)作为基体树脂,配制适用于直书写3D打印的复合墨水,室温下打印成形后经热固化处理和NaCl刻蚀去除后制备了多孔热固性聚酰亚胺/碳纤维(TSPI/CF)复合材料. 研究表明:NaCl与CF对复合墨水的流变学性能具有好的调节作用;打印制备的TSPI/CF复合材料具有低的各向同性尺寸收缩和优异的耐热性能,且耐热性能随着CF含量的增加而提高;CF含量升高,TSPI/CF复合材料的孔隙率提高,平均孔径降低,力学性能增强;多孔TSPI/CF复合材料表现出优异的储油、出油性能以及浸油摩擦学性能.      

Non-Newtonian ink transfer in gravure-offset printing

The inks used in gravure-offset printing are non-Newtonian fluids with higher viscosities and lower surface tensions than Newtonian fluids. This paper examines the transfer of a non-Newtonian ink between a flat plate and a groove when the plate is moved upward with a constant velocity while the groove is held fixed. Numerical simulations were carried out with the Carreau model to explore the behavior of this non-Newtonian ink in gravure-offset printing. The volume of fluid (VOF) method was implemented to capture the interface during the ink transfer process. The effects of varying the contact angle of the ink on the flat plate and groove walls and geometrical parameters such as the groove angle and the groove depth on the breakup time of the liquid filament that forms between the plate and the groove and the ink transfer ratio were determined. Our results indicate that increasing the groove contact angle and decreasing the flat plate contact angle enhance the ink transfer ratio and the breakup time. However, increasing the groove depth and the groove angle decreases the transfer ratio and the breakup time. By optimizing these parameters, it is possible to achieve an ink transfer from the groove to the flat plate of approximately 92%. Moreover, the initial width and the vertical velocity of the neck of the ink filament have significant influences on the ink transfer ratio and the breakup time.     

Comparison of Flow and Transport Experiments on 3D Printed Micromodels with Direct Numerical Simulations

Understanding pore-scale flow and transport processes is important for understanding flow and transport within rocks on a larger scale. Flow experiments on small-scale micromodels can be used to experimentally investigate pore-scale flow. Current manufacturing methods of micromodels are costly and time consuming. 3D printing is an alternative method for the production of micromodels. We have been able to visualise small-scale, single-phase flow and transport processes within a 3D printed micromodel using a custom-built visualisation cell. Results have been compared with the same experiments run on a micromodel with the same geometry made from polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA, also known as Perspex). Numerical simulations of the experiments indicate that differences in experimental results between the 3D printed micromodel and the Perspex micromodel may be due to variability in print geometry and surface properties between the samples. 3D printing technology looks promising as a micromodel manufacturing method; however, further work is needed to improve the accuracy and quality of 3D printed models in terms of geometry and surface roughness.

     

Drop-on-demand drop formation of colloidal suspensions

The drop formation dynamics in the drop-on-demand (DOD) inkjet process is studied for model inks including a Newtonian liquid and colloidal dispersions. The ink shear viscosity is a parameter often adjusted in tuning the DOD drop formation process. Apparent shear viscosity measured at low shear rates is currently used to characterize inkjet inks throughout both the inkjet industry and academia. However, during the ejection process in inkjet printing, very high shear rates (above 1 × 10⁵ s⁻¹) are involved. In this paper, the drop formation characteristics at 10 kHz drop formation rate in a DOD mode of a simple Newtonian liquid are compared with those of a colloidal suspension system which has the same low-shear-rate viscosity as the simple Newtonian liquid, but significantly different high-shear-rate viscosity. Under conditions of good jetting, the drop formation dynamics of the colloidal suspension is similar to that of the simple Newtonian liquid of similar low-shear viscosity, with only slight systematic differences observed. Good jetting is, however, difficult to obtain in the colloidal particle inks, with non-straight trajectories and non-axisymmetric ligaments commonly observed. These observations suggest that evaporation, nonuniform wetting, and particle-related changes in properties play a role when poor jetting behavior is observed for colloidal inks.     

Viscoelasticity in inkjet printing

We investigate the effects of viscoelasticity on drop generation in inkjet printing. In drop-on-demand printing, individual ink ‘drops’ are ejected from a nozzle by imposed pressure pulses. Upon exiting the nozzle, the shape of each ‘drop’ is that of a nearly spherical bead with a long thin trailing ligament. This ligament subsequently breaks up under the Rayleigh instability, typically into several small droplets (known as satellite drops). These satellite drops can create unwanted splash on the target substrate and a reduction in printing quality. Satellite drops can potentially be eliminated by adding polymer to the ink; elastic stresses can act to contract the trailing ligament into the main drop before capillary breakup occurs. However, elasticity can also reduce the drop velocity and can delay or even prevent the break-off of the drop from the ink reservoir within the nozzle. To achieve optimal drop shape and speed, non-Newtonian parameters such as the polymer concentration and molecular weight must be chosen correctly. We explore this parameter space via numerical simulations, using the Lagrangian–Eulerian finite-element method of Harlen et al. (J Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech 60:81–104, 1995). Results are compared with experimental observations taken from real printheads.     

Correlation between viscoelastic properties of letterpress printing inks and film splitting parameters

Summary Dynamic viscoelastic properties of letterpress inks are related to the energy requirements of film splitting. This is carried out using a modified I. G.T. printability tester and aWeissenberg Rheogoniometer. Also, the constantsb andf of theFetsko-Walker equation are reinterpreted in terms of a viscoelastic response of ink during printing.

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Zusammenfassung Die dynamisch-viskoelastischen Eigenschaften von Schnellpressen-Druckfarben (letter press inks) stehen in Beziehung zum Energiebedarf beim Spalten des Films. Dieser Zusammenhang wird mit Hilfe eines modifizierten I.G.T.-Druckfähigkeits-Testers und einesWeissenberg-Rheogoniometers untersucht. Anschließend werden die Konstantenb undf derFetsko-Walker-Gleichung unter Berücksichtigung des viskoelastischen Verhaltens der Farben während des Druckvorgangs neu interpretiert.

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With 11 figures and 1 table     

Experimental and numerical study of the effect of silica filler on the tensile strength of a 3D-printed particulate nanocomposite

Polymers are commonly found to have low mechanical properties, e.g., low stiffness and low strength. To improve the mechanical properties of polymers, various types of fillers have been added. These fillers can be either micro- or nano-sized; however; nano-sized fillers are found to be more efficient in improving the mechanical properties than micro-sized fillers. In this research, we have analysed the mechanical behaviour of silica reinforced nanocomposites printed by using a new 5-axis photopolymer extrusion 3D printing technique. The printer has 3 translational axes and 2 rotational axes, which enables it to print free-standing objects. Since this is a new technique and in order to characterise the mechanical properties of the nanocomposites manufactured using this new technique, we carried out experimental and numerical analyses. We added a nano-sized silica filler to enhance the properties of a 3D printed photopolymer. Different concentrations of the filler were added and their effects on mechanical properties were studied by conducting uniaxial tensile tests. We observed an improvement in mechanical properties following the addition of the nano-sized filler. In order to observe the tensile strength, dog-bone samples using a new photopolymer extrusion printing technique were prepared. A viscoelastic model was developed and stress relaxation tests were conducted on the photopolymer in order to calibrate the viscoelastic parameters. The developed computational model of nano reinforced polymer composite takes into account the nanostructure and the dispersion of the nanoparticles. Hyper and viscoelastic phenomena was considered to validate and analyse the stress–strain relationship in the cases of filler concentrations of 8%, 9%, and 10%. In order to represent the nanostructure, a 3D representative volume element (RVE) was utilized and subsequent simulations were run in the commercial finite element package ABAQUS. The results acquired in this study could lead to a better understanding of the mechanical characteristics of the nanoparticle reinforced composite, manufactured using a new photopolymer extrusion 5-axis 3D printing technique.     

Complicated deformation simulating on temperature-driven 4D printed bilayer structures based on reduced bilayer plate model

The four-dimensional (4D) printing technology, as a combination of additive manufacturing and smart materials, has attracted increasing research interest in recent years. The bilayer structures printed with smart materials using this technology can realize complicated deformation under some special stimuli due to the material properties. The deformation prediction of bilayer structures can make the design process more rapid and thus is of great importance. However, the previous works on deformation prediction of bilayer structures rarely study the complicated deformations or the influence of the printing process on deformation. Thus, this paper proposes a new method to predict the complicated deformations of temperature-sensitive 4D printed bilayer structures, in particular to the bilayer structures based on temperature-driven shape-memory polymers (SMPs) and fabricated using the fused deposition modeling (FDM) technology. The programming process to the material during printing is revealed and considered in the simulation model. Simulation results are compared with experiments to verify the validity of the method. The advantages of this method are stable convergence and high efficiency, as the three-dimensional (3D) problem is converted to a two-dimensional (2D) problem. The simulation parameters in the model can be further associated with the printing parameters, which shows good application prospect in 4D printed bilayer structure design.

     

Effects of viscosity, pressure and time on the penetration of varnishes and inks into paper

Summary The penetration of varnishes and inks into supercalendered paper under pressure was studied by means of reflectance measurements. The penetration appeared to be proportional to the square root of the ratio of the magnitude and duration of the applied pressure to the viscosity. This relationship is in agreement with the classical physical law for the viscous flow of fluid into a porous medium. It is also concluded that for the systems studied the ink penetrates, under the applied pressure, as a homogeneous body into the paper with no filtration of pigments from the carrying varnish.     

Hydro-Acoustics of Piezoelectrically Driven Ink-Jet Print Heads

The hydrodynamical heart of an ink-jet printer is the print head, in which a large number of miniature valveless pumps are integrated. Each pump, when actuated electrically, delivers exactly one droplet of a specified flight direction, speed and size (drop-on-demand: DOD). In studies of the behaviour of miniature pumps only one pump is usually considered. The issue discussed in this paper is: do size and velocity of a droplet depend on the design of the print head? To answer this question we modelled the print head as a number of identical Helmholtz resonators, all connected to a main supply channel. The main supply channel was connected to the ink reservoir through a hose pillar and was also modelled as a Helmholtz resonator. The behaviour of such a manifold of Helmholtz resonators was analysed in both the frequency and the time domain. The paper concerns the hydro-acoustics and hydrodynamics of piezoelectrically activated ink-jet print heads.     

光固化3D打印与传统涂膜法制备聚酰亚胺的摩擦学性能比较研究

为研究光固化3D打印成形技术及其材料配方对光敏聚酰亚胺摩擦学性能的影响,分别采用光固化3D打印技术和传统涂膜成形对比评价了几种光敏型和热固型聚酰亚胺的摩擦学性能、热稳定性及机械性能等.研究表明：为适应光固化3D打印成形需要而加入的活性稀释剂和交联剂对光敏聚酰亚胺的机械性能具有提升作用,但削弱了减摩抗磨和耐热性能;相较于涂膜成形的热固性聚酰亚胺,3D打印样品的耐热性能降低,摩擦系数升高了0.08,磨损率增加了9×10^-6 mm³/(N·m).尽管光固化3D打印聚酰亚胺的减摩抗磨性能低于热固成形聚酰亚胺,但基于光固化3D打印技术的一体成型、高精度和自由制造等诸多优势,对实现高性能及复杂结构精密润滑器件的一体化智能制造具有重要的工程意义.     

Multi-objective optimization of a dimpled channel for heat transfer augmentation

Staggered arrays of dimples printed on opposite surfaces of a cooling channel is formulated numerically and optimized with hybrid multi-objective evolutionary algorithm and Pareto optimal front. As Pareto optimal front produces a set of optimal solutions, the trends of objective functions with design variables are predicted by hybrid multi-objective evolutionary algorithm. The problem is defined by three non-dimensional geometric design variables composed of dimpled channel height, dimple print diameter, dimple spacing, and dimple depth, to maximize heat transfer rate compromising with pressure drop. Twenty designs generated by Latin hypercube sampling were evaluated by Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes solver and the evaluated objectives were used to construct Pareto optimal front through hybrid multi-objective evolutionary algorithm. The optimum designs were grouped by k-means clustering technique and some of the clustered points were evaluated by flow analysis. With increase in dimple depth, heat transfer rate increases and at the same time pressure drop also increases, while opposite behavior is obtained for the dimple spacing. The heat transfer performance is related to the vertical motion of the flow and the reattachment length in the dimple.     

Film flow around a fast rotating roller

In this study, the film thickness around the roller is numerically estimated using the volume of fluid (VOF) method to clarify the film-formation process around the rotating roller. Parametric studies were performed to compare the effects of ink properties (viscosity, surface tension) and operational conditions (roller rotation speed, initial immersed angle) on film thickness. The viscosity of the ink and the speed of rotation of the roller were found to be the dominant factors that determine the ink film thickness. In addition, a correlation equation is proposed to predict the thickness of the ink film around a printing roller rotating at a speed of 20–30 rad/s, as a function of angular position, angular velocity, and viscosity.     

Leveling and thixotropic characteristics of concentrated zirconia inks for screen-printing

Screen-printing is a cost-effective method for the mass manufacture of zirconia-based solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) and oxygen separation membranes. The present work outlines an investigation into the leveling, thixotropic, and screen-printing characteristics of concentrated zirconia inks by a variety of rheological and imaging methods. A combination of viscosity, shear rate jump experiments, creep and recovery analysis, and yield stress measurements were used to assess ink thixotropy. Oscillatory rheometry and scanning electron microscopy/optical microscopy revealed a consistent effect of ethyl cellulose (binder) content upon the thixotropic and leveling characteristics of zirconia inks. While the yield stress (τ ₀), extent of recovery R(%), and rate of recovery (K) increase with increasing binder content, so did the surface roughness and thickness of the screen-printed films. Increasing the binder content not only increases the network strength of the thick films but also leads to increased leveling time. As a result, rheological modifiers are proposed to be necessary to improve the leveling characteristics of zirconia inks without losing the green strength of the thick films.     

Design,Simulation, and Testing of a Novel Bending Stage for Mechanical Characterization of Materials

A novel bending stage is proposed to study the mechanical behavior of materials at small scale. The working principle of the stage is presented along with an experimental evidence using 3D printed prototype. The stage and the specimen are designed to be co-fabricated to avoid the specimen handling and misalignment problems. Analytical and numerical models of the stage are developed to predict the deflection and stresses in the specimen beam upon loading. Good agreement is found between the predictions from the two models. A stage and a sample are 3D printed with a plastic material (PA 2200) to test the feasibility of the proposed design. Bending test is carried out on the sample using the 3D printed stage. Elastic modulus of PA2200 is obtained from the load-deflection data. For comparison, uniaxial tension test was also performed on a PA2200 sample. The modulus of elasticity obtained by the two methods match with each other.     

A Lumped Parameter Model for Thermal Conductivity of Paper Coatings

The increasing use of coated papers in general, but even more so in digital printing methods, reinforces the need for the properties of paper coatings to be well understood. Especially, a more detailed knowledge of the thermal properties of coatings can contribute to improved print quality and process economy of electrophotography and offset printing. Other finishing and converting operations of coated papers benefit as well. This paper proposes a model to calculate thermal conductivity based on structural parameters and the materials used. The parameters of the model are discussed and a comparison of the model parameters for a talcum and a calcium carbonate coating is given.     

Correction to: Time and Space Fractional Diffusion in Finite Systems

Additive manufacturing technology, or 3D printing, with silica sand has enabled the manufacture of porous rock analogues for the use in experimental studies of geomechanical properties of reservoir rocks. The accurate modelling of the fluid flow phenomena within a reservoir and improving the performance of hydrocarbon recovery require an understanding of physical and chemical interactions of the reservoir fluids and the rock matrix. Therefore, for the 3D printed samples to serve as rock analogues, flow properties have to be equivalent to the petrophysical properties of their natural counterparts, such as Berea sandstone. In this study, sandstones that were 3D printed with silica sand and Poly-Furfuryl alcohol (PFA) binder, were used to investigate interactions between porous media with different fluids. Wettability preference of 3D printed samples was characterized through contact angle measurements, as well as co-current and counter-current spontaneous imbibition experiments. Results indicated that 3D printed sandstones had mixed-wet characteristics due to the high preference of silica grains for polar fluids and the affinity PFA binder to the oleic phase. Printing configurations including binder saturation were found to greatly influence the wettability preference of the 3D printed analogue rocks as higher PFA concentrations resulted in more strongly oil-wet preferences. Efforts to optimize the printing process and challenges to control the wettability preferences of the 3D printed samples are also highlighted.

     

Relating Liquid Location as a Function of Contact Time Within a Porous Coating Structure to Optical Reflectance

Refractive index differences between a first and a second fluid can be utilised to obtain information about the location and amount of the fluids in a porous medium in the case where the light absorption coefficient of the skeletal material is small and the light scattering coefficient high using optical measurement methods. An example of such a medium is an air-filled paper coating, and the fluid that of a printing ink liquid phase absorbing into the coating during printing. We examined capillary absorption of mineral oil, used in offset printing ink, into model coatings compressed from dispersed mineral pigments with a range of latex binder levels, and established a porosity-normalised relationship for light reflectance change as a function of absorbed mass of the liquid established at a given time after initial contact with the liquid. The results suggest a significant change in reflectance due to the absorption, and progressive absorption behaviour of the liquid in the coatings can be monitored by the change in reflectance following a newly established relationship derived from the observational data. The findings support the concept of a preferred pathway flow for the wetting front, defined by differential pore size and connectivity, and a longer time saturation front flow lagging behind the wetting front, which theoretically at the limit of infinite time coincides with the wetting front, the time constant of the approach being related to the permeability of the porous network.