Evaluation of solar spectral irradiance distribution using an index from a limited range of the solar spectrum

The output energy of photovoltaic (PV) modules under outdoor conditions is greatly influenced by the spectral irradiance distribution of the solar spectrum. To analyze this effect on PV modules, the spectral irradiance distribution, which is one-dimensional data, has to be represented by a zero-dimensional index. The average photon energy (APE) is an index for spectral irradiance distributions, which represents the average energy per photon in a spectrum. We have previously analyzed the uniqueness of the shape of the solar spectrum in the wavelength range of 350–1050 nm, and one corresponding value of APE showed a specific shape of spectral irradiance distribution. In this study, new indexes were calculated for a limited wavelength range of 350–750 nm and multiple bands of 450–500 nm and 800–850 nm of the solar spectrum for easy measurement and calculation. The result shows the uniqueness of new indexes to the shape of measured solar spectrum and the standard deviations were found to be quite small. This indicates that the new indexes are reasonable for representing the spectral irradiance distribution and its effect on PV performance.     

Numerical procedures and their practical application in PV modules’ analyses. Part II: Useful fractions and APE

The article regards aspects of PV modules tested with the use of natural sunlight. The analysis of spectral structure of solar energy resources in southern Poland, carried out on the basis of meteorological data originating from SolarLab PW Wrocław and AGH Kraków, Poland [1] was used in the article. It is a continuation of the article: Analysis of solar energy resources in southern Poland for photovoltaic applications [1], describing the method to determine spectral parameters of average photon energy (APE) and useful fraction (UF) with the use of a solar radiation spectrum simulator. This article, however, includes an experimental presentation of their impact on PV conversion of modules with different absorbers. Theory and practice of the measurements were described with the use of spectral parameters such as: UF, APE. Their influence on the efficiency of modules’ photovoltaic conversion with various spectral characteristics of absorbers was presented. The most recent methods described, which characterise the structure of solar energy resources such as annual distributions of APE and UF, have not been commonly used yet in Poland and other countries, even though they most precisely define adjustment of the spectral factor to the selected PV module.Practical application of UF, in detection of absorber type used in the tested PV module/cell is demonstrated in the final part of the article.     

Crystalline silicon solar cells with high resistivity emitter

The paper presents a part of research targeted at the modification of crystalline silicon solar cell production using screen-printing technology. The proposed process is based on diffusion from POCl₃ resulting in emitter with a sheet resistance on the level of 70 Ω/□ and then, shaped by high temperature passivation treatment. The study was focused on a shallow emitter of high resistivity and on its influence on output electrical parameters of a solar cell. Secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) has been employed for appropriate distinguishing the total donor doped profile. The solar cell parameters were characterized by current-voltage characteristics and spectral response (SR) methods. Some aspects playing a role in suitable manufacturing process were discussed. The situation in a photovoltaic industry with emphasis on silicon supply and current prices of solar cells, modules and photovoltaic (PV) systems are described. The economic and quantitative estimation of the PV world market is shortly discussed.     

Effectiveness of full spectrum light soaking on solar cell degradation analysis

This study examined the effect of UV-spectrum light soaking on solar cell degradation tests. An indoor light soaking test was evaluated over three different spectral ranges: “UV only”, “UV blocked” and “Full spectrum”. a-Si:H and poly-crystalline silicon solar cell technologies were studied by light soaking tests with the same optical filter configurations.The I–V measurement results demonstrated that “UV only” irradiated solar cells exhibited the smallest output power degradation, which was only half of a percent variation compared with the full spectrum light soaking case. Using a filter that excluded the effect of the UV spectral range on light soaking, the “UV blocked” case also exhibited a significant output power degradation of the solar cells. A comparative analysis of the solar cell response, based on the I–V characteristics and the diode ideality factor under these different light soaking spectra, demonstrated the importance of the full spectrum light soaking test in the evaluation of the long-term performance of solar cells.     

Can the incident photo-to-electron conversion efficiency be used to calculate short-circuit current density of dye-sensitized solar cells

The relationship between the integration of the incident photo-to-electron conversion efficiency (IPCE) and the measured short-circuit current density (J_SC) of dye-sensitized solar cell (DSC) has been analyzed. The J_SC of DSC under full sun is usually considered to be determined by the overlap between its spectral IPCE and the spectral photon flux incident on the cell. However, the IPCE spectrum has been found to be influenced by the bias light intensity in many practical cases. Through theoretical deduction, we have proved that J_SC calculated from IPCE spectrum is related to the slope at corresponding incident light intensity on the short-circuit photocurrent density–incident light intensity (J_SC?E_light) curve. The equal relation between J_SC calculated from IPCE and J_SC practically measured can only be obtained when the J_SC?E_light curve is a straight line through the origin of the coordinates. The measured results of four DSC samples with different working condition show a good agreement with the theory. In addition, a simple method to validate the accuracy of IPCE measurement is also demonstrated.     

Efficiency characteristics of a silicon oxide passivation layer on p-type crystalline silicon solar cell at low illumination

Silicon dioxide (SiO₂) is widely used to improve the surface passivation properties of silicon solar cells. To minimize solar cell potential-induced degradation when the PV module is installed outdoors, a silicon oxide film is widely used as an insulator. However, experiments have confirmed that solar cells with a silicon oxide (SiO₂) film have a lower efficiency than solar cells without a silicon oxide (SiO₂) film at low illumination (<0.4 sun). Actually, the efficiency in the low illumination condition affects the average power output per day because the PV module mostly operates when the solar irradiation dose is less than 1 sun. To maximize the performance of the PV module, the output at a low light intensity level should also be considered. Shunt resistance (R_shunt) is known to cause a decrease in solar cell efficiency under low illumination conditions. PC1D simulation was used to analyze parameters, such as the series resistance, parallel resistance, and surface recombination, that affect the characteristics of the solar cell at low light intensity. In this study, we confirmed how the SiO₂ layer affected the low illumination properties of solar cells, even though these cells were more efficient at 1 sun. Silicon solar cells with a SiN_x/SiO₂ bilayer or a SiN_x single film were fabricated, and their characteristics were evaluated. Passivation characteristics were measured using the quasi-steady-state photoconductance (QSSPC) technique to evaluate the minority carrier lifetime and the implied open-circuit voltage (V_OC), and capacitance-voltage measurements were used to analyze the fixed charges. The values of the shunt resistance and series resistance in solar cells with different passivation layers were compared, and the cause of the decrease in the efficiency under low illumination was also analyzed via fill factor calculation.     

高效黑硅电池组件反光板角度的模拟研究

传统的光伏组件为了实现发电功率最大化,安装时具有一定倾角,但在使用过程中仍有一部分光会被组件表面反射到空中造成浪费.本文设计了一种带反光板结构的高效黑硅太阳能电池组件,多角度吸光的黑硅组件配合反光板结构可以充分利用反射光线.对反光板和黑硅组件夹角进行了模拟计算,结果表明,当光伏组件安装倾角为34时,反光板安装角度为16.5最佳,同等光照条件下使得电池的发电功率增加了约39%.     

Displacement damage analysis and modified electrical equivalent circuit for electron and photon-irradiated silicon solar cells

Solar modules and arrays are the conventional energy resources of space satellites. Outside the earth's atmosphere, solar panels experience abnormal radiation environments and because of incident particles, photovoltaic (PV) parameters degrade. This article tries to analyze the electrical performance of electron and photon-irradiated mono-crystalline silicon (mono-Si) solar cells. PV cells are irradiated by mono-energetic electrons and poly-energetic photons and immediately characterized after the irradiation. The mean degradation of the maximum power (P_max) of silicon solar cells is presented and correlated using the displacement damage dose (D_d) methodology. This method simplifies evaluation of cell performance in space radiation environments and produces a single characteristic curve for P_max degradation. Furthermore, complete analysis of the results revealed that the open-circuit voltage (V_oc) and the filling factor of mono-Si cells did not significantly change during the irradiation and were independent of the radiation type and fluence. Moreover, a new technique is developed that adapts the irradiation-induced effects in a single-cell equivalent electrical circuit and adjusts its elements. The “modified circuit” is capable of modeling the “radiation damage” in the electrical behavior of mono-Si solar cells and simplifies the designing of the compensation circuits.     

The effect of anti-reflection coating of porous silicon on solar cells efficiency

Anti-reflection coatings of solar cells have been fabricated using different techniques. The techniques used include SiO₂ thermal oxidation, ZnO/TiO₂ sputtering deposition and porous silicon prepared by electrochemical etching. Surface morphology and structural properties of solar cells were investigated by using scanning electron microscopy and atomic forces microscopy. Optical reflectance was obtained by using optical reflectometer. I-V characterizations were studied under 80 mW/cm² illumination conditions. Porous silicon was found to be an excellent anti-reflection coating against incident light when it is compared with another anti-reflection coating and exhibited good light-trapping of a wide wavelength spectrum which produced high efficiency solar cells.     

Uncertainty evaluation of the spectral UV irradiance evaluated by using the UVSPEC radiative transfer model

The radiative transfer models allow calculating the spectral UV irradiance from some set of measured input quantities linked with the surface reflectivity, the solar zenith angle, the ozone column and the characteristics of clouds and aerosols. The spectral irradiance yielded by a model is influenced by errors in the measurement of the input quantities. In this paper, the influences of these errors are characterized and compared with other systematic effects through an uncertainty analysis. We evaluated the uncertainty of the spectral UV irradiance rendered by the UVSPEC model, under cloudless sky conditions. In order to express the uncertainty of the output quantities (the global, direct and diffuse irradiances) in terms of the standard uncertainties of the input quantities, we used a Monte Carlo-based uncertainty propagation technique. We found that the uncertainty of the irradiance in the UV-B part of the spectrum was strongly influenced by the uncertainty attributed to the ozone column datum. Moreover, the uncertainities associated with the aerosol parameters accounted for most of the UV-A global irradiance uncertainty; the latter increased from about 4% under low aerosol conditions, up to about 14% in case of polluted air. We conclude that the UV irradiance evaluation through radiative transfer models requires paying special attention to the assessment of the aerosols properties.     

High-resolution mapping of the energy conversion efficiency of solar cells and silicon photodiodes in photovoltaic mode

We demonstrate an optical technique to derive the two-dimensional energy conversion efficiency (η_CE), fill factor (FF) and external quantum efficiency (η_QE) distributions across the surface of photovoltaic devices. A compact, inexpensive optical-feedback laser diode microscope is constructed to acquire the confocal reflectance and efficiency maps enabling the observation of the local parametric behavior in silicon photodiodes in photovoltaic mode and single-junction solar cells. The η_CE and η_QE distributions are greatly influenced by local parasitic resistances that depend on laser irradiance. These parasitic resistances decrease the η_CE and η_QE values with distance from the contact electrode at high laser irradiance. The optical technique enables microscopic comparison of η_CE and η_QE within the pn-overlay region of the photodiode sample, revealing its optimization for photodetection rather than power generation. The technique also elucidates the decreasing local η_CE of the solar cell under intense irradiation.     

Enhancement of silicon solar cell performances due to light trapping by colloidal metal nanoparticles

Photovoltaics is the most promising technology for the future of green energy production. To fully realize the potential use of photovoltaic technology, low manufacturing cost and high working photoconversion efficiency must be obtained. Light trapping by metal nanoparticles is an attractive strategy in thin film as well as in bulk silicon solar cells aimed to confine light within the active layer to promote the photon absorption and therefore achieving higher efficiency. In this paper, we tested the deposition of silver and gold nanoparticles on bulk silicon solar cells by colloidal technique in order to enhance their photovoltaic conversion efficiency by means of Plasmonic Light Scattering by metal nanoparticles. The feasible Plasmonic Light Scattering related enhancement was examined using spectral response and I–V measurements. Relative increases of the total delivered power under simulated solar irradiation were observed for cells both with and without antireflection coating using silver and gold nanoparticles.     

基于精密太阳光谱辐射计的气象辐射观测

目前,气象业务观测普遍采用的积分型太阳辐射观测仪器存在观测数据信息量少、数据差异大的观测瓶颈,已无法满足目前众多应用科学研究领域对太阳光谱辐射精细化观测的需求,具有高光谱分辨率的精密光谱辐射计的仪器研制及观测方法与技术已成为太阳辐射观测的前沿科技问题。在此背景下,为解决气象领域太阳辐射的精细化观测问题,开展了深入的科学研究与技术开发工作。重点阐述了仪器开发成果和数据观测分析方法,首先介绍了开发研制的用于地基太阳光谱辐照度观测的光谱辐射计系统。光谱辐射计的分光系统采用了平场凹面光栅结构,具有低杂散光、高收光效率和高可靠性的特点,尤其适用于长期无人值守的户外观测。系统所采用的平场凹面光栅的像差校正特性对于300～1 100 nm这种宽谱段的应用来讲更为合适,在整个谱段范围内光谱分辨率变化很小,不同波长通道的带宽基本一致,使用25 μm狭缝时光谱分辨率(FWHM)约为2 nm,像素采样间隔小于0.5 nm。对于太阳辐射观测来讲,这是一种谱段范围和分辨率都与需求十分匹配的专用光谱辐照度观测仪器。其次,在观测数据的基础上,阐述和分析了气象等领域的光谱应用观测方法。太阳辐射照度分布的能量通过不同参数化模型约束的接收系统收集,将太阳光谱辐射在半球天穹中的变化及分布进行约束并划分为水平总辐照度(GHI),法向直接辐照度(DNI)和水平散射辐照度(DHI)三种光谱辐照度辐射分量,阐述了基于GHI,DNI和DHI三种观测形式下的数据特征与用途。其中,GHI是地表实际辐照度水平,适用于太阳能资源评估;DHI反映大气和云态;DNI作为直接透射形式,可用于计算日照时数和分析大气参量。并且,进一步分析了观测形式、光谱特征与地理(经度、纬度、海拔高度、大气质量)及气象参数(云量、大气吸收)之间的互易演算关系。与传统的波长积分式辐射观测相比,太阳光谱辐射计为辐射能量观测增加了波长信息维度。从DNI形式的光谱辐照度数据中可以看出,不同波长之间的辐射能量变化显著,而这些变化与大气变化密切相关。因此,太阳光谱辐照度数据不仅仅是为业务观测提供更精细化的太阳辐射信息,更提供了丰富的辐射能量的变化信息通道,利用特征波长维度的辐射信息,可进一步通过模型反演计算气溶胶光学厚度、臭氧、水汽等大气参数。通过精密太阳光谱辐射计,可将纳米分辨率水平的太阳光谱辐照度作为基础业务运行数据,提供精细化的太阳辐射分布及变化信息用于气象与气候模型、光伏资源评估与生态环境等研究;同时也为辐射波长分布中所蕴含的气候、农业、生态等领域关心的各种通量监测和演化关系研究提供了有力的数据信息及观测工具。     

Assessment of the illumination dependency of Al2O3 and SiO2 rear‐passivated p‐type silicon solar cells

This Letter discusses an important difference between positively charged SiO₂ and negatively charged Al₂O₃ rear‐passivated p‐type Si solar cells: their illumination level dependency. For positively charged SiO₂ rear‐passivated p‐type Si solar cells, a loss in short circuit current (J_SC) and open circuit voltage (V_OC) as a function of illumination level is mainly caused by parasitic shunting and a decrease in surface recombination, respectively. Hence, the relative loss in cell conversion efficiency, J_SC, and V_OC as a function of the illumination level for SiO₂ compared to Al₂O₃ rear‐passivated p‐type Si solar cells has been measured and discussed. Subsequently, an exponential decay fit of the loss in cell efficiency is applied in order to estimate the difference in the energy output for both cell types in three different territories: Belgium (EU), Seattle and Austin (US). The observed trends in the difference in energy output between both cells, as a function of time of the year and region, are as expected and discussed. (© 2012 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Power loss mechanisms in small area monolithic-interconnected photovoltaic modules

Power loss mechanisms in small area monolithic-interconnected photovoltaic modules (MIM) are described and evaluated. Optical and electrical losses are quantified and individual loss components are derived for loss mechanisms of small area radial (radius?=?1?mm) pie-shaped six-segment GaAs MIM laser power converter. At low monochromatic homogeneous illumination (G_low?=?1.8?W/cm², λ₀?=?809?nm) conversion efficiency of the cell, designed for a low irradiance, is reduced by 3.7%_abs. due to isolation trench optical losses and by 7.0%_abs. due to electrical losses (mainly perimeter recombination). Electrical losses in a device designed for a high irradiance, result in 18%_abs. decrease of output power under homogeneous monochromatic illumination (G_high?=?83.1?W/cm², λ₀?=?809?nm), while 11.6%_abs. losses are attributed to optical reasons. Regardless the irradiance level, optical losses further increase if the device is illuminated with a Gaussian instead of an ideal flattop beam profile. In this case, beam spillage losses occur and losses due to isolation trenches and reflections from metallization are elevated. On top of that, additional current mismatch losses occur, if individual MIM’s segments are not equally illuminated. For the studied device, a 29?μm off center misalignment of a Gaussian shaped beam (with 1% spillage) reduces the short circuit current I_sc by 10%_abs. due to the current mismatch between segments.     

Mass production technology for multicrystalline Si solar cells

The worldwide shipments of the PV modules in the last 10 years show an increase of about 20% per year. The worldwide PV modules shipments were 201 MW in 1999. About 85% modules have made from crystalline silicon. The multicrystalline silicon (mc-Si) modules shipments have showed substantial increase. PV market would be expected to increase by the development of low cost and high technologies of mc-Si solar cells. This paper reviews recent progress in mass production technologies of mc-Si solar cells.     

Microcrystalline silicon‐carbon alloys as anti‐reflection window layers in high efficiency thin film silicon solar cells

Microcrystalline silicon‐carbide (μc‐SiC:H) films were prepared using hot wire chemical vapor deposition at low substrate temperature. The μc‐SiC:H films were employed as window layers in microcrystalline silicon (μc‐Si:H) solar cells. The short‐circuit current density (J_SC) in these n‐side illuminated n–i–p cells increases with increasing the deposition time t_W of the μc‐SiC:H window layer from 5 min to 60 min. The enhanced J_SC is attributed to both the high transparency and an anti‐reflection effect of the μc‐SiC:H window layer. Using these favourable optical properties of the μc‐SiC:H window layer in μc‐Si:H solar cells, a J_SC value of 23.8 mA/cm² and cell efficiencies above 8.0% were achieved with an absorber layer thickness of 1 μm and a Ag back reflector. (© 2008 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Electrical and optical properties of nanowires based solar cell with radial p-n junction

In our studies the absorption, transmittance and reflectance spectra for periodic nanostructures with different parameters were calculated by the FDTD (Finite-Difference Time-Domain) method. It is shown that the proportion of reflected light in periodic structures is smaller than in case of thin films. The experimental results showed the light reflectance in the spectral range of 400–900 nm lower than 1% and it was significantly lower in comparison with surface texturing by pyramids or porous silicon.Silicon nanowires on p-type Si substrate were formed by the Metal-Assisted Chemical Etching method (MacEtch). At solar cells with radial p-n junction formation the thermal diffusion of phosphorus has been used at 790 °C. Such low temperature ensures the formation of an ultra-shallow p-n junction. Investigation of the photoelectrical properties of solar cells was carried out under light illumination with an intensity of 100 mW/cm². The obtained parameters of NWs' solar cell were I_sc = 22 mA/cm², U_oc = 0.62 V, FF = 0.51 for an overall efficiency η = 7%. The relatively low efficiency of obtained SiNWs solar cells is attributed to the excessive surface recombination at high surface areas of SiNWs and high series resistance.     

Application of the chemical vapor-etching in polycrystalline silicon solar cells

This paper reports a study of the application of chemical vapor-etching (CVE) for the rear surface and in the emitter of polycrystalline silicon (pc-Si) solar cells. The CVE technique consists of exposing pc-Si wafers to a mixture of HF/HNO₃. This technique is used to groove the rear surface of the pc-Si wafers for acid vapors rich in HNO₃ (HNO₃/HF > 1/4), in order to realize rear-buried metallic contacts (RBMC) and the formation of a porous silicon (PS) layer on the frontal surface of the cell for volume ratio of HNO₃/HF = 1/7. A significant increase of the spectral response in the long wavelength range was observed when a RBMC is formed. This increase was attributed to the reduction of the effective thickness of the base of the cells and grain boundary Al gettering. The achievement of a PS layer on the emitter of the pc-Si cells passivates the surface and reduces the reflectivity. The dark I-V characteristics of pc-Si cells with emitter-based PS show an important reduction of the reverse current together with an improvement of the rectifying behaviour. The I-V characteristic under AM1.5 illumination shows an enhancement of both short circuit current density and fill factor. The internal quantum efficiency is improved, particularly in the short wavelengths region.