Micromechanical characterizing elastic,thermoelastic and viscoelastic properties of functionally graded carbon nanotube reinforced polymer nanocomposites

In this work, elastic, thermoelastic and viscoelastic properties of functionally graded carbon nanotube reinforced polymer nanocomposites are investigated using a 3-dimensional micromechanics-based approach. The main advantage of the proposed micromechanical model is its ability to give closed-form formulation for predicting the effective properties of nanocomposites. In the micromechanical modeling, the interphase formed due to non-boned van der Waals interaction between the continuous CNT and polymer matrix is considered through employing an individual representative volume element. The validity of the model is examined by comparing its results with other theoretical approaches and experimental data available in the literature. The effects of various types of CNTs arrangement in the matrix, i.e. uniform distribution and different functionally graded distributions on the elastic, thermoelastic and viscoelastic properties of polymer nanocomposites are investigated in detail. Furthermore, random arrangement of CNTs in the matrix is modelled. The influences of CNT/polymer matrix interphase and CNT volume fraction on the effective properties of nanocomposites are also studied. Finally, the viscoelastic response of nanocomposites under multiaxial loading is extracted and interpreted.     

A thermodynamic approach to the rheology of highly interactive filler-polymer mixtures. Part II. Comparison with polystyrene/nanosilica mixtures

The dynamic properties as a function of frequency and strain amplitude, steady-state viscosity as a function of shear rate, and transient shear stresses at startup and cessation of shear flow of polystyrene (PS)/fumed silica mixtures of various concentrations were investigated. An abrupt change in the viscoelastic properties was noticed at a concentration above 1% by volume. Observations by means of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) indicate the presence of a three-dimensional network through the bridging of filler particles by the adsorbed polymer. The viscoelastic behavior is simulated utilizing a theory proposed in Part I (Havet and Isayev 2001) based on a double network created by the entangled polymer matrix and the adsorbed polymer with filler concentration taken into account through the bridging density of polymer-filler interactions and a hydrodynamic reinforcement. The steps taken for determining the model parameters required to carry out the simulation are described. The major features of the rheological behavior of highly interactive polymer-filler mixtures are captured qualitatively and in some cases, quantitatively predicted.     

Dynamic and buckling analysis of polymer hybrid composite beam with variable thickness

This work deals with a study of the dynamic and buckling analysis of polymer hybrid composite(PHC) beam. The beam has variable thickness and is reinforced by carbon nanotubes(CNTs) and nanoclay(NC) simultaneously. The governing equations are derived based on the first shear deformation theory(FSDT). A three-phase HalpinTsai approach is used to predict the mechanical properties of the PHC. We focus our attention on the effect of the simultaneous addition of NC and CNT on the vibration and buckling analysis of the PHC beam with variable thickness. Also a comparison study is done on the sensation of three impressive parameters including CNT, NC weight fractions, and the shape factor of fillers on the mechanical properties of PHC beams,as well as fundamental frequencies of free vibrations and critical buckling load. The results show that the increase of shape factor value, NC, and CNT weight fractions leads to considerable reinforcement in mechanical properties as well as increase of the dimensionless fundamental frequency and buckling load. The variation of CNT weight fraction on elastic modulus is more sensitive rather than shear modulus but the effect of NC weight fraction on elastic and shear moduli is fairly the same. The shape factor values more than the medium level do not affect the mechanical properties.     

Stress–softening effect of SBR/nanocomposites by a phenomenological Gent–Zener viscoelastic model

An experimental study of a tensile loading–unloading procedure, as well as multi-cyclic response in a strain-controlled program of a Styrene-Butadiene (SBR) elastomer reinforced with four different weight fractions of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) has been performed. The Mullins effect features, namely hysteresis, damage and residual strain, exhibited by the SBR/nanocomposites were analyzed by a modified Gent–Zener rheological model, and a damage function. Especially for the multi-cyclic stress–strain curves, phenomenological equation of the model parameters evolution with strain were also introduced. The same loading procedure was applied in pre-stressed materials, revealing a different stress–strain response due to strain prehistory. The model has been proven to accurately capture the loading–unloading behavior, the residual strain, hysteresis loops as well as the multi-cyclic behavior of the SBR/CNT nanocomposites.     

碳纳米管复合膜的制备及其摩擦学性能

通过混酸对碳纳米管(CNTs)纯化,然后应用稀土溶液对纯化CNTs进行功能化,采用分子自组装技术在羟基化的玻璃基片表面制备了碳纳米管复合膜.运用原子力显微镜(AFM)及扫描电子显微镜(SEM)观察了薄膜的表面形貌,使用X射线光电子能谱仪(XPS)分析了薄膜表面典型元素的化学状态,并采用UMT-2MT摩擦试验机评价了薄膜的摩擦磨损性能.研究结果表明:通过硅烷偶联剂3-巯丙基三甲氧基硅烷(MPTS)的磺酸基化学吸附功能,稀土改性后的碳纳米管可以成功组装到氧化后的硅烷化表面.当组装碳纳米管复合膜后,基片表面的摩擦系数由无膜时的0.85降到了0.10,表明复合膜可以降低基片的摩擦系数,并且在较低载荷下具有较好的耐磨性能,显示了其在微机构表面改性方面良好的应用前景.     

Effect of vinyl acetate content and silicate loading on EVA nanocomposites under shear and extensional flow

In this study, three EVAs (ethylene-vinyl acetate co-polymers) with different vinyl contents (VA) ranging from 9 wt% to 28 wt% (EVA9, EVA18 and EVA28) were melt blended with organo-clay to obtain polymer layered silicate nanocomposites. Filler intercalation and exfoliation were evidenced by X-ray diffraction. The melt state viscoelastic properties of EVA nanocomposites were studied to examine the influence of clay in altering the flow properties of these polymeric nanocomposites. The EVA18 and EVA28 nanocomposites exhibited remarkable difference in dynamic and steady shear properties compared to neat polymers. On the other hand, EVA9-5% nanocomposite did not exfoliate and exhibited rheological behaviour very similar to that of the neat polymer. Furthermore, the first normal stress difference was found to be dependent on the silicate loadings when measured at low shear stresses. The uniaxial extensional viscosity measurement indicated that the strain hardening was weaker in EVA nanocomposites compared to neat polymers. Environmental scanning electron (ESE)-microscopy elucidated a possible reason for reduced strain hardening in these systems.     

碳纳米管在润滑脂中的导电性和摩擦学性能研究

碳纳米管(CNTs)作为添加剂,制备了以油溶性聚醚为基础油,聚四氟乙烯(PTFE)作稠化剂的导电润滑脂.用体积表面电阻测定仪测定其体积电阻率,用扫描电子显微镜(SEM)观察钢盘磨斑表面形貌,EDS能谱仪分析磨损表面元素组成.结果表明:含碳纳米管的润滑脂与含导电炭黑的润滑脂相比较,不但具有优异的润滑性能,还具有低的体积电阻率.     

A Tensile Split Hopkinson Bar for Testing Particulate Polymer Composites Under Elevated Rates of Loading

A tensile split Hopkinson bar apparatus is developed for testing high strain rate behavior of glass-filled epoxy. The apparatus uses a specimen gripping configuration which does not require fastening and/or gluing and can be readily used for castable materials. Details of the experimental setup, design of grips and specimen, specimen preparation method, benchmark experiments, and tensile responses are reported. Also, the effects of filler volume fraction (0–30%) and particle size (11–42 μm) are examined under high rates of loading and the results are compared with the ones obtained from quasi-static loading conditions. The results indicate that the increase in the loading rate contributes to a stiffer and brittle material response. In the dynamic case lower ultimate stresses are seen with higher volume fractions of filler whereas in the corresponding quasi-static cases an opposite trend exists. However, the absorbed specific energy values show a decreasing trend in both situations. The results are also evaluated relative to the existing micromechanical models. The tensile response for different filler sizes at a constant volume fraction (10%) is also reported. Larger size filler particles cause a reduction in specimen failure stress and specific energy absorbed under elevated rates of loading. In the quasi-static case, however, the ultimate stress is minimally affected by the filler size.     

EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT FUNCTIONALIZATION SCHEMES ON THE INTERFACIAL STRENGTH OF CARBON NANOTUBE POLYETHYLENE COMPOSITE

The mechanical performance of carbon nanotube(CNT) reinforced polymer composites is primarily controlled by the dispersive capacity and interfacial shear strength of CNTs in polymer matrices. CNT functionalizations will improve dispersion and strengthen interfacial bonding of CNTs in matrices. To understand the effects of different functionalization schemes on the interfacial strength of CNT-polymer composites, pullout of the covalent, noncovalent, and mixed functionalized single-walled carbon nanotube(SWCNT) from polyethylene(PE) matrix was simulated by using molecular dynamics, respectively. The results show that the SWCNT-PE interfacial shear strength is significantly improved by SWCNT functionalizations, particularly by mixed functionalization.     

Investigating the transient response of a shear thickening fluid using the split Hopkinson pressure bar technique

The split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) technique is implemented to evaluate the transient response of a colloidal suspension exhibiting shear thickening at strain rates and timescales never before explored in a laboratory instrument. These suspensions are shown to exhibit a discontinuous transition from fluid-like (shear thinning) to solid-like (shear thickening) behavior when evaluated using rotational rheometry. The effect of loading rate on this transition time is studied for a particle volume fraction of 0.54 using the SHPB technique. It is shown that the time required for transition to occur decreases logarithmically with loading rate. From these results, we conclude that transition is not triggered by a characteristic shear rate, but rather a critical shear strain is required. Results from SHPB experiments performed up to Peclet numbers of order 10⁷ are presented and discussed for 0.50, 0.52, and 0.54 particle volume fraction suspensions.     

A theory of plasticity for carbon nanotube reinforced composites

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) possess exceptional mechanical properties, and when introduced into a metal matrix, it could significantly improve the elastic stiffness and plastic strength of the nanocomposite. But current processing techniques often lead to an agglomerated state for the CNTs, and the pristine CNT surface may not be able to fully transfer the load at the interface. These two conditions could have a significant impact on its strengthening capability. In this article we develop a two-scale micromechanical model to analyze the effect of CNT agglomeration and interface condition on the plastic strength of CNT/metal composites. The large scale involves the CNT-free matrix and the clustered CNT/matrix inclusions, and the small scale addresses the property of these clustered inclusions, each containing the randomly oriented, transversely isotropic CNTs and the matrix. In this development the concept of secant moduli and a field fluctuation technique have been adopted. The outcome is an explicit set of formulae that allows one to calculate the overall stress-strain relations of the CNT nanocomposite. It is shown that CNTs are indeed a very effective strengthening agent, but CNT agglomeration and imperfect interface condition can seriously reduce the effective stiffness and elastoplastic strength. The developed theory has also been applied to examine the size (diameter) effect of CNTs on the elastic and elastoplastic response of the composites, and it was found that, with a perfect interface contact, decreasing the CNT radius would enhance the overall stiffness and plastic strength, but with an imperfect interface the size effect is reversed. A comparison of the theory with some experiments on the CNT/Cu nanocomposite serves to verify the applicability of the theory, and it also points to the urgent need of eliminating all CNT agglomeration and improving the interface condition if the full potential of CNT reinforcement is to be realized.     

碳纳米管作为润滑油添加剂的摩擦磨损性能研究

采用催化裂解法制备了多壁碳纳米管,在M-200型摩擦磨损试验机上考察了碳纳米管作为长城SE级15W/30汽油机油添加剂的摩擦磨损性能,采用表面形貌仪测量其磨斑轮廓并计算磨损体积损失,用扫描电子显微镜对磨斑表面形貌进行观察分析. 结果表明: 碳纳米管作为润滑油添加剂表现出优良的抗磨性能,在质量分数仅为0.0125%～0.1000%时,润滑油的抗磨性能显著提高;在质量分数约为0.0500%时其抗磨效果最佳,磨损率降低幅值达57%;在较高载荷下,添加0.0250%的碳纳米管能够使其摩擦系数减小约15%,但随着碳纳米管质量分数的增加,摩擦系数迅速提高;含碳纳米管润滑油的磨斑表面平整,划痕较细且分布均匀.     

Three-dimensional theory of stability of a carbon nanotube in a matrix

The three-dimensional theory of stability of a carbon nanotube (CNT) in a polymer matrix is presented. The results are obtained on the basis of the three-dimensional linearized theory of stability of deformable bodies. Flexural and helical (torsional) buckling modes are considered. It is proved that the helical (torsional) buckling modes occur in a single CNT (the interaction of neighboring CNTs is neglected) and do not occur in nanocomposites (the interaction of neighboring CNTs is taken into account) __________ Translated from Prikladnaya Mekhanika, Vol. 42, No. 1, pp. 23–37, January 2006.     

Carbon nanotube glycol nanofluids: Photo-thermal properties,thermal conductivities and rheological behavior

The efficiency and effectiveness of solar energy capture and storage are to a large extent functions of the heat transfer and storage capacity of the medium used. This paper investigates the potential of using carbon nanotube (CNT)-glycol nanosuspension as such a medium, prepared by freeze drying-ultrasonic dispersing after oxidation treatment with HNO₃. The influences of the mass fraction of CNTs glycol nanofluids and temperatures on photo-thermal properties, thermal conductivities and rheological behavior were investigated. The results show that CNTs with oxidation treatment exhibited good dispersing performance. Strong optical absorption of the CNTs glycol nanofluids was detected in the range of 200–2500 nm. At room temperature, 18% enhancement was found in the photo-thermal conversion efficiency of the 0.5% mass fraction CNTs glycol nanofluids in comparison to the basic fluids, without significant increase in viscosity. At 55 °C, CNTs glycol nanofluids with 4.0% mass fraction exhibited much lower viscosity and 25.4% higher thermal conductivity in comparison to that of pure glycol at room temperature.     

Large amplitude oscillatory shear behavior of graphene derivative/polydimethylsiloxane nanocomposites

Rheological properties of three different nanocomposites, consisting of graphene oxide (GO), reduced graphene oxide (rGO), and polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane grafted reduced graphene oxide (rGO-POSS) as nanofillers and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), were investigated by large amplitude oscillatory shear (LAOS). The viscoelastic nonlinearity of the three nanofluids groups was studied by Lissajous curves, local nonlinear viscoelastic moduli of an oscillatory shear cycle, and Fourier transform rheology as a function of filler concentration and increasing and decreasing strain magnitude. The nonlinear behavior of the nanofluids was compared to understand the variation of internal microstructures. Firstly, GO/PDMS composites behave with higher moduli and smaller linear viscoelastic range comparing to that of other two composites. Secondly, the elastic stress Lissajous curves of these composites changed from elliptic to rectangular with round the corner with increasing the filler level and strain amplitude. Thirdly, all these three nanofluids exhibited intra-cycle strain stiffening with increasing strains and shear thickening at intermediate strain and then shearing thinning with increasing strain further. Fourthly, higher harmonic intensity of rGO/PDMS increased with increasing strain and came to a plateau, while that of other two nanofluids reached a maximum and then decreased. It suggested that different surface functionalization of nanoparticles will present different rheological behavior due to formed different network and LAOS could be used as a potential helpful method to characterize rheological properties of nanocomposites, especially at higher shear strain.     

Atomistic-based continuum representation of the effective properties of nano-reinforced epoxies

In this paper, an atomistic-based representative volume element (RVE) is developed to characterize the behavior of carbon nanotube (CNT) reinforced amorphous epoxies. The RVE consists of the carbon nanotube, the surrounding epoxy matrix, and the CNT/epoxy interface. An atomistic-based continuum representation is adopted throughout all the components of the RVE. By equating the associated strain energies under identical loading conditions, we were able to homogenize the RVE into a representative fiber. The homogenized RVE was then employed in a micromechanical analysis to predict the effective properties of the newly developed CNT-reinforced amorphous epoxy. Numerical examples show that the effect of volume fraction, orientation, and aspect ratio of the continuous fibres on the properties of the CNT-reinforced epoxy adhesives can be significant. These results have a direct bearing on the design and development of nano-tailored adhesives for use in structural adhesive bonds.     

Rheological behavior of a semi-crystalline polymer during isothermal crystallization

The theological behavior of a molten semi-crystalline polymer, namely, a high density polyethylene (HDPE), was investigated during isothermal crystallization from the melt, using dynamic oscillatory experiments at 1 tad/s in a parallel plates rheometer. The theological results were compared with those obtained from differential scanning calorimetry in the same conditions. During the crystallization, the molten and crystallizing polymer provides a useful model for filled polymers, the crystalline phase being the filler and the liquid phase being the matrix. In most cases, the filler can be considered to be spherical shaped (spherulites). Owing to the amorphous phase linking liquid and crystallites, the adhesion between matrix and filler in this system is perfect. The filler content increases continuously during the crystallization. This model might be used to test laws relating the theological parameters to the volume fraction of filler. Problems related to the rheometry for such systems are discussed and the key parameters insuring reproducibility and accuracy in the measurements are pointed out. The relative sensitivity of the various theological parameters (storage and loss moduli, loss angle) to structural changes of the liquid has been out forward. Some preliminary equations relating the variation of these parameters to the volume fraction of filler, through the use of simple fractal exponents have been derived and discussed in comparison with laws provided by various authors.     

Influence of elastic foundations and carbon nanotube reinforcement on the hydrostatic buckling pressure of truncated conical shells

In this study, the effects of elastic foundations(EFs) and carbon nanotube(CNT) reinforcement on the hydrostatic buckling pressure(HBP) of truncated conical shells(TCSs) are investigated. The first order shear deformation theory(FOSDT) is generalized to the buckling problem of TCSs reinforced with CNTs resting on the EFs for the first time. The material properties of composite TCSs reinforced with CNTs are graded linearly according to the thickness coordinate. The Winkler elastic foundation(W-EF) and Pasternak elastic foundation(P-EF) are considered as the EF. The basic relations and equations of TCSs reinforced with CNTs on the EFs are obtained in the framework of the FOSDT and solved using the Galerkin method. One of the innovations in this study is to obtain a closed-form solution for the HBP of TCSs reinforced with CNTs on the EFs. Finally, the effects of the EFs and various types CNT reinforcements on the HBP are investigated simultaneously. The obtained results are compared with the results in the literature, and the accuracy of results is confirmed.     

Geometrically nonlinear large deformation analysis of triangular CNT-reinforced composite plates

A first known investigation on the geometrically nonlinear large deformation behavior of triangular carbon nanotube (CNT) reinforced functionally graded composite plates under transversely distributed loads is investigated. The analysis is carried out using the element-free IMLS-Ritz method. In this study, the first-order shear deformation theory (FSDT) and von Kármán assumption are employed to account for transverse shear strains, rotary inertia and moderate rotations. A convergence study is conducted by varying the supporting size and number of nodes. The effects of transverse shear deformation, CNT distribution and CNT volume fraction on the nonlinear bending characteristics under different boundary conditions are examined.     

Dispersion of multi-walled carbon nanotubes in PDMS/PB blend

In this study, the sequential dispersion of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (CNTs) in PDMS/PB (polydimethylsiloxane/polybutene) blends and the change of blend morphology by the dispersion of CNTs were investigated by rheological and morphological observations. The dispersion of CNTs into PDMS/PB blend was accomplished by the dilution of the CNT master (2?wt.% CNT in PDMS) in PDMS/PB blend using an extensional mixer. The morphological study shows that under the extensional flow, CNTs in the dispersed CNT master phase are mainly broken up by tip-streaming and the continuous pinching-off of PDMS drops during morphology evolution enhances the dispersion of CNT. It has been shown that CNTs can be disentangled as in the case of dispersing CNTs in a Boger fluid. Rheological data and TEM observations show that it is not simply a mixing of two phases and the CNTs in the master phase can be dispersed in the single CNT level.