Remarkable Shape‐Sustaining,Load‐Bearing,and Self‐Healing Properties Displayed by a Supramolecular Gel Derived from a Bis‐pyridyl‐bis‐amide of L‐Phenyl Alanine

A series of bis‐amides decorated with pyridyl and phenyl moieties derived from L ‐amino acids having an innocent side chain (L ‐alanine and L ‐phenyl alanine) were synthesized as potential low‐molecular‐weight gelators (LMWGs). Both protic and aprotic solvents were found to be gelled by most of the bis‐amides with moderate to excellent gelation efficiency (minimum gelator concentration=0.32–4.0 wt. % and gel–sol dissociation temperature T_gel=52–110 °C). The gels were characterized by rheology, DSC, SEM, TEM, and temperature‐variable ¹H NMR measurements. pH‐dependent gelation studies revealed that the pyridyl moieties took part in gelation. Structure–property correlation was attempted using single‐crystal X‐ray and powder X‐ray diffraction data. Remarkably, one of the bis‐pyridyl bis‐amide gelators, namely 3,3‐Phe (3‐pyridyl bis‐amide of L ‐phenylalanine) displayed outstanding shape‐sustaining, load‐bearing, and self‐healing properties.     

Hydrogen-bonded Supramolecular Hydrogels Derived from 3,3',4,4'-Benzophenonetetracarboxylic Acid and Hydroxylpyridines

In this paper, four gelators (defined as G1 – G4 ) were prepared from 3,3′,4,4′‐benzophenonetetracarboxylic acid (BPTA) and para‐hydroxylpyridine or meta‐hydroxylpyridine at molar ratios 1:2 and 1:4 respectively, and characterized by ¹H NMR, IR, UV‐Vis spectra and elemental analysis. Due to the amphiphilic features, all the gelators were able to gel water via cooling their aqueous solution under different stimulations. The structure of the assembling fibers and the macroscopic properties of the gels were investigated by multiple techniques. The results indicated that the minimum gelator concentration (MGC) increased by the order of G1 , G2 , G3 and G4 , while the gel‐to‐sol dissociation temperature (T_gel) decreased by the same order, which were explained from the assembling structures of the gels.     

p‐Quaterphenylene as an Aggregation‐Induced Emission Fluorogen in Supramolecular Organogels and Fluorescent Sensors

Two dumbbell‐shaped organogelators with a p ‐quaterphenylene core were synthesized, and their self‐assembly properties were investigated. These low‐molecular‐weight gelators could form self‐supporting gels in many apolar organic solvents with an H‐type aggregation form through a synergic effect of π–π stacking, intermolecular translation‐related hydrogen bonding, and van der Waals forces. In comparison to the p ‐terphenylene‐cored gelator, the extended π‐conjugated segment improved the gelation efficiency significantly with enhanced gelation rate. Additionally, these p ‐quaterphenylene‐centered gelators exhibited strong fluorescence emission induced by aggregation, which not only provided an in situ method to optically monitor the gelation process, but also endowed these self‐assemblies with substantial applications in sensing explosives.     

Molecular weight effects on gelation and rheological properties of konjac glucomannan–xanthan mixtures

Fractions of konjac glucomannan (KGM) with various viscosity‐average molecular weights (M_v) ranging from 4.00 × 10⁵ to 2.50 × 10⁶ were prepared by hydrolysis degradation in hydrochloride acid/ethanol. Effect of M_v of KGM on the critical gelation temperature (T_gel) determined by Winter–Chambon criterion and the elasticity of KGM/xanthan mixed gels, a kind of binary gel formed by synergistic gelation, were investigated by dynamic viscoelastic measurements. It was shown that the value of T_gel of the gel was shifted to a higher temperature and the gel strength was enhanced when M_v of KGM was increased. The critical M_v (1.91 × 10⁶) was observed, above which the T_gel and elasticity of the mixed gels showed no or slight increase. It was suggested that T_gel and elasticity of KGM/xanthan mixed gels mainly depend on the structure of junction zones driven by the strong interaction between KGM and xanthan, which was gradually improved with increasing M_v of KGM. It was found that the critical strain and yield stress of the mixed gels increased monotonically with the increasing M_v of KGM. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part B: Polym Phys 48: 313–321, 2010     

Dynamic light scattering and small-angle neutron scattering studies on organogels formed with a gelator

Small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) and light scattering studies were carried out on an organogel consisting of a gelator, coded P-1, and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). The gelator was made of an oligosiloxane stem and about eight branches of an amino acid derivative combined with a long alkyl chain. The amino acid part, N-n-pentanoyl-L -isoleucylaminooctadecane, was responsible for intermolecular association via hydrogen bonding between amide groups. After the complete dissolution of P-1 in DMSO at 85 °C, the solution was cooled, and the variations of the scattered light intensity were monitored as a function of the temperature. The scattered intensity increased drastically at about 40 °C when the P-1 concentration (C) was 3.5 g/L, and this indicated gel formation. The SANS results showed that the scattering intensity function was a monotonically decreasing function, regardless of C. A master relationship of the scattering intensity was obtained with respect to C. These scattering studies disclosed the following facts. First, gelation could be monitored as an abrupt increase in the intensity. Second, the gel was composed of randomly oriented bundlelike clusters. Third, the structure factor could be reduced by the gelator concentration, and this indicated the presence of a self-similar structure across the gelation threshold. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part B: Polym Phys 42: 1841–1848, 2004     

Poly(aryl ether) Dendrons with Monopyrrolotetrathiafulvalene Unit‐Based Organogels exhibiting Gel‐Induced Enhanced Emission (GIEE)

A series of poly(aryl ether) dendrons with a monopyrrolo‐tetrathiafulvalene unit linked through an acyl hydrazone linkage were designed and synthesized as low molecular mass organogelators (LMOGs). Two of the dendrons could gelate the aromatic solvents and some solvent mixtures, but the others could not gel all solvents tested except for n‐pentanol. A subtle change on the molecular structure produces a great influence on the gelation behavior. Note that the dendrons could form the stable gel in the DMSO/water mixture without thermal treatment and could also form the binary gel with fullerene (C₆₀) in toluene. The formed gels undergo a reversible gel–sol phase transition upon exposure to external stimuli, such as temperature and chemical oxidation/reduction. A number of experiments (SEM, FTIR spectroscopy, ¹H NMR spectroscopy, and UV/Vis absorption spectroscopy, and XRD) revealed that these dendritic molecules self‐assembled into elastically interpenetrating one‐dimensional fibrillar aggregates and maintain rectangular molecular‐packing mode in organogels. The hydrogen bonding, π–π, and donor–acceptor interactions were found to be the main driving forces for formation of the gels. Moreover, the gel system exhibited gel‐induced enhanced emission (GIEE) property in the visible region in spite of the absence of a conventional fluorophore unit and the fluorescence was effectively quenched by introduction of C₆₀.     

The poor solubility of ureidopyrimidone can be used to form gels of low molecular weight N-alkyl urea oligomers in organic solvents

A synthesis strategy for low molecular weight organogelators using the ureidopyrimidinone (UPy) group is reported. The prepared gelators showed robust thermal reversible gelation abilities in various solvents, including dimethyl sulfoxide. The morphology of the dried gels was determined using scanning electron microscopy, revealing a macroscopic porous structure of the gels. Rheology was performed to determine storage (G′) and loss modulus (G″) confirming network gel structures.     

Novel Method of Producing Polymer Gels in Aqueous Solution Using UV Irradiation

Summary: We developed a novel method of producing polymer gels in aqueous solution using UV irradiation. Persulfates were effective photosensitive initiators of polymerization and/or gelation of acryloyl‐type monomers/polymers. The gelation was confirmed by an abrupt increase in light scattering intensity, 〈I(q)〉_T, at the gelation point. The gelation method entails significant advantages: it does not need any cross‐linkers, temperature control (heating), and additives except the persulfate.

The UV irradiation time dependence of light scattering intensity, 〈I(q)〉_T, for pre‐gel solutions containing N‐isopropylacrylamide (NIPAm) and/or ammonium persulfate (APS).     

Effect of solution concentration on the gelation of aqueous polyvinyl alcohol solution

The concentration dependence of cryogenic gelation for aqueous solution of poly(vinyl alcohol) was studied by measuring the apparent gel fraction G and the swelling ratio Q of the gel formed by freezing and thawing. It was found that for the gelation process there were three distinct regions of solution concentration bounded by two concentrations C_gel and C. The gel started to form at C = C_gel, while no visible gel could be detected even upon repeated freezing and thawing of the extremely dilute solutions of C < C_gel. The entire solution was gelatinized as a whole in the high concentration region of C > C. In the intermediate concentration region, C_gel < C < C, which covers three orders of magnitude in concentration, gel and sol phases coexist. Both concentration dependencies of G and Q show two branches jointed at a concentration very close to the overlap concentration C^*. The curve of G?Q versus C shows a sharp cusp. In case the sharp cusp concentration is really the value of C^*, gelation offers a precise method to determine the overlap concentration. ©1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

SANS investigations of oxide gel formation in inverse micelle and lamellar surfactant systems

The mechanisms of oxide gel formation in inverse micelle and lamellar surfactant systems have been investigated by Small Angle Neutron Scattering (SANS). In the first of these processes colloidal particles and gels are formed by the controlled hydrolysis and condensation of metal alkoxides in a reversed microemulsion system (water in oil), where the water is confined in the microemulsion core. With this route the rate of formation and structure of the oxide gel can be controlled by appropriate choice of the surfactant molecule (e.g. chain length) and the volume fraction of the micelles dispersed in the continuous organic phase. Investigations have been made with the system cyclohexane/water/C₈E _x , where C₈E _x is the non-ionic surfactant octylphenyl polyoxyethylene. The influence of the size and structure of the microemulsion has been studied by contrast variation (using deuterated solvents) before and during the reaction to form zirconia gels, and the mechanism of gelation is analysed in terms of percolation of fractal cluster aggregates. The structure of gels formed in surfactant/water lamellar phase systems, using surfactants with greater chain length, has also been investigated by SANS. The application of contrast variation to study such anisotropic bilayer systems, in which oriented gel films can be formed, is illustrated.     

Chiral Hexa‐ and Nonamethylene‐Bridged Bis(L‐Leu‐oxalamide) Gelators: The First Oxalamide Gels Containing Aggregates with a Chiral Morphology

Chiral amino acid‐ and amino alcohol‐oxalamides are well‐known as versatile and efficient gelators of various lipophilic and polar organic solvents and water. To further explore the capacity of the amino acid/oxalamide structural fragment as a gelation‐generating motif, the dioxalamide dimethyl esters 1₆Me and 1₉Me , and dicarboxylic acid 2₆OH / 2₉OH derivatives containing flexible methylene bridges with odd ( 9 ; n=7) and even ( 6 ; n=4) numbers of methylene groups were prepared. Their self‐assembly motifs and gelation properties were studied by using a number of methods (FTIR, ¹H NMR spectroscopy, CD, TEM, DSC, XRPD, molecular modeling, MMFF94, and DFT). In contrast to the previously studied chiral bis(amino acid or amino alcohol) oxalamide gelators, in which no chiral morphology was ever observed in the gels, the conformationally more flexible 1₆Me , 1₉Me , 2₆OH , and 2₉OH provide gelators that are capable of forming diverse aggregates of achiral and chiral morphologies, such as helical fibers, twisted tapes, nanotubules, straight fibers, and tapes, in some cases coexisting in the same gel sample. It is shown that the differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)‐determined gelation enthalpies could not be correlated with gelator and solvent clogP values. Spectroscopic results show that intermolecular hydrogen‐bonding between the oxalamide units provides the major and self‐assembly directing intermolecular interaction in the aggregates. Molecular modeling studies reveal that molecular flexibility of gelators due to the presence of the polymethylene bridges gives three conformations ( zz , p1 , and p2 ) close in energy, which could form oxalamide hydrogen‐bonded layers. The aggregates of the p1 and p2 conformations tend to twist due to steric repulsion between neighboring iBu groups at chiral centers. The X‐ray powder diffraction (XRPD) results of 1₆Me and 1₉Me xerogels prove the formation of p1 and p2 gel aggregates, respectively. The latter results explain the formation of gel aggregates with chiral morphology and also the simultaneous presence of aggregates of diverse morphology in the same gel system.     

Synthesis of Fluorescent Gelators and Direct Observation of Gelation with a Fluorescence Microscope

Fluorescein‐, benzothiazole‐, quinoline‐, stilbene‐, and carbazole‐containing fluorescent gelators have been synthesized by connecting gelation‐driving segments, including l ‐isoleucine, l ‐valine, l ‐phenylalanine, l ‐leucine residue, cyclo(l ‐asparaginyl‐l ‐phenylalanyl), and trans‐(1R,2R)‐diaminocyclohexane. The emission behaviors of the gelators were investigated, and their gelation abilities studied against 15 solvents. The minimum gel concentration, variable‐temperature spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, fluorescence microscopy (FM), and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) were used to characterize gelation. The intermolecular hydrogen bonding between the N?H and C=O of amide, van der Waals interactions and π–π stacking play important roles in gelation. The colors of emission are related to the fluorescence structures of gelators. Fibrous aggregates characterized by the color of their emission were observed by FM. 3D images are produced by the superposition of images captured by CLSM every 0.1 μm to a settled depth. The 3D images show that the large micrometer‐sized aggregates spread out three dimensionally. FM observations of mixed gelators are studied. In the case of gelation, two structurally related gelators with the same gelation‐driving segment lead to the gelators build up of the same aggregates through similar hydrogen‐bonding patterns. When two gelators with structurally different gelation‐driving segments induce gelation, the gelators build up each aggregate through individual hydrogen‐bonding patterns. A fluorescent reagent that was incorporated into the aggregates of gels through van der Waals interactions was developed. The addition of this fluorescent reagent enables the successful observation of nonfluorescent gelators’ aggregates by FM.     

3D Networks from Self-Assembling Ionic-Complementary Octa-Peptides

The self-assembly and gelation properties of a set of four octo-peptides AEAEAKAK, AEAKAEAK, FEFEFKFK and FEFKFEFK based on alanine (A), phenylalanine (F), lysine (K) and glutamic acid (E) were investigated via small angle neutron scattering (SANS). The SANS experiments suggest that AEAKAEAK peptide does not self-assemble in solution while AEAEAKAK form rod-like structure i.e.: fibres with a radius of ∼3.3 nm. The latter peptide does not form a gel suggesting that the fibres do not aggregate and form a three-dimensional network. On the other hand FEFEFKFK and FEFKFEFK peptides were found to form gels for concentrations higher than ∼7 mg ml⁻¹. Below the critical gelation concentration these peptides were also found to form fibrillar structures with smaller average radii of ∼1.7 nm. Above the critical gelation concentration a scattering maximum is observed in the scattered intensity curve. From the position of the maximum a rough estimation of the mesh size of the gel network could be derived and was found to vary between 15 and 30 nm depending on the gel concentration.     

Temperature dependent phase behavior of PNIPAM microgels in mixed water/methanol solvents

Temperature dependent phase behavior of poly(N-isopropylacylamide) (PNIPAM) microgels in water/methanol mixtures of different composition was studied with dynamic light scattering (DLS) and small-angle neutron scattering (SANS). Using DLS, it is possible to measure the diffusion coefficient, and thus the size of particles exactly and directly; the variation of the phase transition temperature in the different solvents is also easy to detect by this method. With SANS measurements in D₂O/MeOD mixtures, some of the DLS results were confirmed. Moreover, SANS measurements give valuable information on the particle structure in different solvents. The experiments were compared with the theory of competitive hydration introduced by Tanaka et al. We found a good agreement of theory and experiment, and obtained the theoretical predictions: around the transition temperature, the composition of the bound methanol along the chains is higher than that of the outer solution, while the whole methanol composition inside the gel is lower. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part B: Polym. Phys. 2013, 51, 1100–1111     

Microstructure and swelling behavior of ion-exchange resin

The microstructure and swelling kinetics of ion-exchange resins having sulfonic acid groups were investigated by small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) and swelling experiments as functions of the crosslinking density (CD), pH, and the salt concentration (C_salt). The swelling kinetics was analyzed on the basis of the Tanaka-Fillmore swelling equation for the cooperative diffusion of polymer gels. The swelling behavior was very sensitive to CD, but not to pH and C_salt. The SANS intensity functions, I(q), were independent of CD and well described with a power law function, I(q) ∼ q^−D, where q and D are the magnitude of the scattering vector and the mass-fractal dimension, respectively. D was estimated to be ∼2, indicating that the resin consisted of a rather coarsely interconnected domains irrespective of CD at swelling equilibrium. It was found that CD is the most important parameter determining the swelling power of ion-exchange resin. However, no remarkable variations were found in the microstructure in the order of tens to hundreds of angstrom. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

超分子凝胶性质与溶剂参数关系的研究进展

为了能有效地开发功能性凝胶, 人们对超分子凝胶机理做了大量研究. 但目前的研究还局限于凝胶因子结构和外界环境等影响因素, 而有关溶剂对超分子凝胶体系的影响规律还不十分清楚. 本文将结合最新研究进展详细地讨论凝胶性质(如凝胶-溶胶转变温度(T_gel)、临界凝胶浓度(CGC)、凝胶流变学性质等)与溶剂参数(如ε、E_T(30)、χ、δ、δ_d、δ_p、δ_h等)的关系, 揭示溶剂影响凝胶性质的规律; 在此基础上, 进一步介绍了超分子凝胶行为预测模型: 一维模型、Teas图模型和Hansen空间模型, 并讨论了各模型的优缺点, 以期为新型超分子凝胶体系的设计提供参考.     

Molecular dimensions and chain conformation in glassy syndiotactic polystyrene

For the first time the small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) from mixtures of protonated and totally deuterated syndiotactic polystyrene (sPS) has been studied. Two amorphous samples with similar molecular weights have been measured at various concentrations of the protonated part. All measurements were performed at room temperature using the scattering equipment of two different laboratories. The molecular weight M_w evaluated from SANS data agreed with those obtained by gel permeation analysis (GPC). In the Kratky representation the scattering contribution due to the contrast scattering shows a plateau behavior up to q = 0.45 Å^?1, where q is magnitude of the scattering vector. This observation is in evident contrast to what is expected from the rotational isomeric state (RIS) model. In addition the characteristic ratios C_∞, derived either from the plateau height or from radii of gyration of the Zimm regime and being in reasonable agreement with each other, show strong deviations from the predictions of the RIS model. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Thermoreversible gelation of helical polypeptide/single‐walled carbon nanotubes and their solid‐state structures

Single‐walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) have been functionalized with poly(γ‐benzyl‐L ‐glutamate)s (PBLGs) having well‐defined polymer molecular weight (M_n = 7.5–21.1 kg·mol^?1) and molecular weight distribution (PDI = 1.05–1.20) by a graft‐to method. Toluene solutions containing 5 wt % free PBLG and variable amounts of PBLG‐functionalized SWCNTs (PBLG‐SWCNTs) form gels at room temperature. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis reveals that the gelation occurs thermoreversibly, in accord with previous studies on the pristine PBLG/toluene gels. The heat of gel melting (ΔH_m) is slightly elevated for the composite gels compared with the pristine gel, which suggests enhanced interactions between PBLGs in the former. But the gelation temperatures of the composites are unaffected by the presence of PBLG‐SWCNTs. Small‐angle X‐ray scattering (SAXS) analysis of the composite and pristine gels at different temperatures by the Guinier method suggests that PBLG‐SWCNTs promote interactions between PBLG rods, as indicated by the larger PBLG bundle size with increasing PBLG‐SWCNT content in the gel and the melt state. W/SAXS analysis of the dry gels reveals that PBLG‐SWCNTs induce significant changes in the PBLG packing order, resulting in a nematic phase, in contrast to a weakly ordered smectic C phase containing tilted PBLG rods that is observed in the pristine gel. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem, 2011     

Conductivity,proton percolation,and gelation during the network growth in a flexible chain diepoxide and diamine mixture

The conductivity of a stoichiometric mixture of diglycidyl ether of 1,4‐butanediol and 1,6‐hexamethylene diamine has been studied during its polymerization at several temperatures where the ultimate product is a crosslinked gel. The decrease in the dc conductivity, σ₀, with the polymerization time, t, fits an equation for bond percolation, σ₀ ∼ [(t_gel‐t)/t_gel]^p, and yields a gelation time, t_gel which agrees with the t_gel determined from the viscosity and shear modulus measurements. It is proposed that as one covalent bond forms on chemical reaction, an indeterminable number of intermolecular H‐bonds in the structure vanish, and protonic conduction is disrupted. Thus, as the original H‐bond network gives way to a covalently bonded network, the mechanical rigidity increases, and protonic conductivity decreases. The gel point is reached when the increase in the number of covalent bonds brings the liquid's state up to its rigidity percolation threshold, and the decrease in the number of H‐bonds brings it down to its electrical percolation threshold. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Polym Sci B: Polym Phys 38: 122–126, 2000