Quality improvement vs. advertising support: Which strategy works better for a manufacturer?

We consider a marketing channel with a single manufacturer and a single retailer, where both advertising and quality improvement contribute to the build-up of goodwill. In a non-coop scenario, the retailer controls the advertising efforts while the manufacturer controls the quality improvements and wholesale price. Although improving quality positively contributes to goodwill, it also increases the production cost, thereby reducing the manufacturer’s profit. In a coop scenario, the manufacturer supports the retailer’s advertising while decreasing his investments in quality. We investigate the conditions under which a coop program is beneficial when such a trade-off occurs. Our results demonstrate that only when advertising significantly contributes to goodwill the manufacturer has an incentive to cooperate and a coop program turns out to be Pareto-improving. Conversely, the retailer is always better off with a coop program. Moreover, the channel is operational- and marketing-driven when quality effectiveness is high independent of advertising effectiveness or when both quality and advertising effectiveness are large. In all other cases, the channel is marketing-driven.     

政府补贴政策下考虑风险规避的绿色供应链定价决策研究

在政府推行补贴政策背景下,通过建立博弈模型研究了政府补贴、制造商和零售商的风险规避对绿色供应链定价策略、产品绿色度、供应链各方利润及整体利润的影响。研究表明:制造商或零售商单方面的风险规避对对方来说都是有利的,但不同的是,仅制造商风险规避时,产品绿色度、批发价格、零售价格及其自身利润都将下降,供应链整体利润则既存在上升也存在下降的情况,当仅零售商风险规避时,产品绿色度、供应链整体利润都将上升,批发价格、零售价格及其自身利润则既存在上升也存在下降的情况;政府增加补贴会在一定程度上加重制造商的风险规避对其自身利润及产品绿色度的损害作用,却会在一定程度上减弱零售商的风险规避对其自身利润的损害作用,并增强零售商的风险规避对产品绿色度的提升作用。     

Supply chain coordination through integration of innovation effort and advertising support

This study integrates firms’ innovation and advertising decisions in a two-echelon supply chain, where a monopoly manufacturer sells products to ultimate consumers through an autonomous retailer. Considering that both innovation and advertising contribute to the product demand, we first investigate the optimal equilibriums of channel members under two different game structures: the non-cooperative and cooperative. In the non-cooperative structure, the manufacturer controls the innovation effort and wholesale price while the retailer controls the advertising rate and retail pricing. In the cooperative structure, the manufacturer agrees to share part of retailer’s advertising expenditure. We find that both the optimal operation and marketing decisions are sensitive to effects of innovation and advertising on demand as well as the manufacturer’s cost reduction coefficient due to innovation. Further, we find that the manufacturer always prefers cooperation. Meanwhile, only when the firms’ investments significantly contribute to the market mechanism, does the retailer have incentive to implement a cooperative program. In addition, we further propose a new two-way subsidy policy to coordinate channel members’ business functions.     

政府规制下不同市场力量主导的CLSC决策

为了研究不同市场力量主导下电器电子产品闭环供应链(CLSC)决策的差异以及政府规制对决策的影响,在政府规制和无政府规制下建立由制造商、销售商和消费者构成的闭环供应链模型,并分别在制造商和销售商主导市场的情形下,基于博弈方法求得政府最优规制工具、CLSC各成员的最优经营策略和利润以及社会福利。结果表明:无论政府规制与否,不同市场力量主导不会影响销售价、再生利用率和政府规制工具的制定,也不会影响社会福利,但会影响批发价和回收价决策以及各成员的利润,并且当制造商主导市场时批发价更高,销售商主导市场时回收价更高。制造商和销售商通常都在自己主导市场时利润最大。此外,无论市场主导力量是制造商还是销售商,政府规制都将提高批发价和销售价,且当再生利用率指标不高于制造商的最优再生利用率时,政府规制一般都有助于提高回收价以及各成员的利润。     

Demand forecast sharing in a dual-channel supply chain

We assess the benefits of sharing demand forecast information in a manufacturer–retailer supply chain, consisting of a traditional retail channel and a direct channel. The demand is a linear function of price with a Gaussian primary demand (i.e., zero-price market potential). Both the manufacturer and the retailer set their price based on their forecast of the primary demand. In this setting, we investigate the value of sharing demand forecasts. We analyze the ‘make-to-order’ scenario, in which prices are set before and production takes place after the primary demand is known, and the ‘make-to-stock’ scenario, in which production takes place and prices are set before the primary demand is known. We also compare the supply chain performance with and without the direct channel under some assumptions (production cost is zero, and each demand function has the same slope of price). We find that the direct channel has a negative impact on the retailer’s performance, and, under some conditions, the manufacturer and the whole supply chain are better off. Our research extends and complements prior research that has investigated only the inventory and replenishment-related benefits of information sharing.     

Product variety and channel structure strategy for a retailer-Stackelberg supply chain

Motivated by the observations that the direct sales channel is increasingly used for customized products and that retailers wield leadership, we develop in this paper a retailer-Stackelberg pricing model to investigate the product variety and channel structure strategies of manufacturer in a circular spatial market. To avoid channel conflict, we consider the commonly observed case where the indirect channel sells standard products whereas the direct channel offers custom products. Our analytical results indicate that if the reservation price in the indirect channel is sufficiently low, adding the direct channel raises the unit wholesale price and retail price in the indirect channel due to customization in the direct channel. Despite the fact that dual channels for the retailer may dominate the single indirect channel, we find that the motivation for the manufacturer to use dual channels decreases with the unit production cost, while increases with (i) the marginal cost of variety, (ii) the retailer’s marginal selling cost, and (iii) the customer’s fit cost. Interestingly, our equilibrium analysis demonstrates that it is more likely for the manufacturer to use dual channels under the retailer Stackelberg channel leadership scenario than under the manufacturer Stackelberg scenario if offering a greater variety is very expensive. When offering a greater variety is inexpensive, the decentralization of the indirect channel may invert the manufacturer’s channel structure decision. Furthermore, endogenization of product variety will also invert the channel structure decision if the standard product’s reservation price is sufficiently low.     

需求信息不对称下多渠道供应链的协调定价

针对由一个制造商和一个零售商组成的两层供应链,其中制造商拥有网络直销渠道和传统零售渠道组成的多渠道问题,运用stackelberg博弈分别进行了制造商和零售商需求信息不对称时二者集中控制和分散控制时的最优定价分析,结果表明分散控制会降低供应链的总体效率,继而为了提高多渠道供应链的效率,通过数量折扣模型对多渠道供应链进行协调定价,最后进行了算例验证及有效性分析,结果表明数量折扣模型能使多渠道供应链中的制造商和传统零售商达到双赢,它是合理有效的。     

不同权力结构对制造商双渠道供应链的影响研究

在一个制造商和一个零售商组成的供应链中, 制造商拥有线下传统渠道及线上直销双渠道。首先根据消费者剩余理论, 构建了制造商双渠道需求函数;接着分别构建了两类Stackelberg博弈及Nash博弈三种权力结构下制造商和零售商的利润模型并对模型进行了求解;最后分析了三种不同权力结构对制造商双渠道供应链的影响。研究发现:制造商线上直销渠道价格不受三种博弈权力结构的影响;线下传统渠道零售价格、需求, 线上直销渠道需求及制造商双渠道供应链总利润不受两类Stackelberg博弈权力结构的影响;线下传统渠道零售价格及线上直销渠道需求在Nash博弈权力结构下最小, 而线下传统渠道需求及供应链总利润在Nash博弈权力结构下最大;制造商批发价格、利润及零售商利润对三种博弈权力结构较敏感, 随供应链成员自身博弈权力地位的下降而逐渐降低。     

Coordinating a supply chain with green innovation in a dynamic setting

This paper addresses the channel coordination problem in a green supply chain consisting of a manufacturer and a retailer, in which the manufacturer controls green innovation and wholes price, while the retailer controls sales price. Pricing and green innovation strategies in integrated and decentralized channels are computed and compared, and a two-part tariff contract is designed to coordinate the decentralized supply chain. A Nash bargaining model is further developed to distribute the extra-profit between channel members. A numerical example is conducted to explore the impacts of green effectiveness and operational inefficiency effect on optimal/equilibrium solutions and coordination. The main results show that the green innovation investment, energy efficiency level and channel profit of integrated channel are larger than those of decentralized one, but the relationship of sales prices under two channel structures depends on system parameters. Green effectiveness exerts a positive effect on optimal/equilibrium solutions. The coordinator’s coordination capability is improved by green effectiveness, but weakened by operational inefficiency effect.     

A supply chain model with direct and retail channels

We study a dual channel supply chain in which a manufacturer sells to a retailer as well as to consumers directly. Consumers choose the purchase channel based on price and service qualities. The manufacturer decides the price of the direct channel and the retailer decides both price and order quantity. We develop conditions under which the manufacturer and the retailer share the market in equilibrium. We show that the difference in marginal costs of the two channels plays an important role in determining the existence of dual channels in equilibrium. We also show that demand variability has a major influence on the equilibrium prices and on the manufacturer’s motivation for opening a direct channel. In the case that the manufacturer and the retailer coordinate and follow a centralized decision maker, we show that adding a direct channel will increase the overall profit. Our numerical results show that an increase in retailer’s service quality may increase the manufacturer’s profit in dual channel and a larger range of consumer service sensitivity may benefit both parties in the dual channel. Our results suggest that the manufacturer is likely to be better off in the dual channel than in the single channel when the retailer’s marginal cost is high and the wholesale price, consumer valuation and the demand variability are low.     

制造商信息私有条件下的双渠道供应链定价决策

针对由风险规避型制造商拥有的直销渠道和风险规避型零售商拥有的传统零售渠道组成的双渠道供应链模型,首先研究制造商和零售商的风险规避信息为共同知识条件下,直销渠道和传统零售渠道的定价决策。进一步分析制造商风险规避度为私有信息条件下,制造商和零售商的最优定价策略,探讨精炼贝叶斯均衡定价的存在条件。研究表明,信息非对称条件下,零售商即使存在信念的修正,其零售渠道的定价与制造商的定价决策类型始终保持一致,而制造商的最终定价策略选择有多种。在不同参数条件下,该非对称信息动态博弈模型可能存在分离均衡、混同均衡和准分离均衡。     

强制减排规制下基于碳减排利润增量分享契约的供应链协调研究

碳减排会增加制造商的成本,导致批发价和零售价提高,从而抑制市场需求。以此为背景,本文针对由一个制造商和一个零售商组成的供应链,研究了强制减排规制下考虑消费者低碳偏好时的供应链决策与协调。通过设计碳减排利润增量分享契约协调制造商和零售商的决策,实现帕累托改进,利用Rubinstein讨价还价模型最终确定减排利润分享比例。研究发现,实施碳减排利润分享契约能有效提高零售商的订货量,并降低批发价格;制造商的利润随着消费者低碳意识提高而提高;当净化率较低时,零售商的利润随消费者低碳意识提高而提高;当净化率较高时,零售商的利润随消费者低碳意识提高而降低;最后,论文通过数值模拟验证了碳减排利润分享契约的有效性。     

低碳双渠道供应链的需求信息共享策略研究

在需求不确定环境下,研究考虑消费者低碳意识的双渠道供应链的需求信息共享策略。论文考虑由单个零售商和单个进行碳减排的制造商构成的两级双渠道供应链,构建三种情形的模型:信息不共享、信息共享和只有零售商作预测。通过三种情形下供应链中成员最优决策和利润的比较,得到需求信息共享策略对供应链的影响;并进一步研究消费者低碳意识等参数对供应链运营的影响。研究发现,需求信息共享未必使得供应链成员利润均提高,当制造商预测准确度优于零售商时,零售商会选择信息共享,制造商选择信息不共享情形;当零售商比制造商预测准确时,零售商会选择信息不共享的情形,而制造商会选择仅有零售商预测,此时制造商应采取一定的激励措施以获得零售商的预测信息;消费者低碳意识对批发价、零售价、单位产品减排量、供应链成员利润均产生正向影响。     

考虑零售商销售努力的制造商入侵策略研究

渠道入侵正逐渐成为企业开拓市场,实现多渠道销售的重要策略。在考虑零售商销售努力的前提下,研究了制造商渠道入侵策略。构建了四种Stackelberg博弈模型:不入侵和无销售努力、入侵和无销售努力、不入侵和有销售努力、入侵和有销售努力。研究结果表明,线上直销渠道与线下零售渠道之间的不对称替代水平越高,越不利于制造商入侵;在制造商入侵的情况下,零售商销售努力促使制造商降低批发价格;渠道入侵成本较大且零售商销售努力投资效率高的前提下,销售努力可以有效缓解制造商入侵带来的负面影响;渠道入侵降低了零售商销售努力的动机。     

Dynamic Slotting and Pricing Decisions in a Durable Product Supply Chain

We consider a supply chain in which a manufacturer sells an innovative durable product to an independent retailer over its life cycle. We assume that the product demand follows a Bass-type diffusion process and that it is determined by the market influences, retail price of the product, and shelf space allocated to it. We consider the following retailer profit optimization strategies: (i) the myopic strategy of maximizing the current-period profit and (ii) the far-sighted strategy of maximizing the life-cycle profit. We characterize the optimal dynamic shelf-space allocation and retail pricing policies for the retailer and wholesale pricing policies for the manufacturer. We compute also these policies numerically. Surprisingly, we find that the manufacturer, and sometimes even the retailer, is better off with a myopic retailer strategy in some cases.     

低碳双渠道供应链的需求信息共享策略研究

在需求不确定环境下,研究考虑消费者低碳意识的双渠道供应链的需求信息共享策略。论文考虑由单个零售商和单个进行碳减排的制造商构成的两级双渠道供应链,构建三种情形的模型:信息不共享、信息共享和只有零售商作预测。通过三种情形下供应链中成员最优决策和利润的比较,得到需求信息共享策略对供应链的影响;并进一步研究消费者低碳意识等参数对供应链运营的影响。研究发现,需求信息共享未必使得供应链成员利润均提高,当制造商预测准确度优于零售商时,零售商会选择信息共享,制造商选择信息不共享情形;当零售商比制造商预测准确时,零售商会选择信息不共享的情形,而制造商会选择仅有零售商预测,此时制造商应采取一定的激励措施以获得零售商的预测信息;消费者低碳意识对批发价、零售价、单位产品减排量、供应链成员利润均产生正向影响。     

双渠道闭环供应链的三种回收模式的建模分析

针对生产商负责网上直销、零售商负责网下零售、且具有回收再制造功能的双渠道闭环供应链,首先分析了生产商负责产品回收和零售商负责产品回收下生产商和零售商之间的博弈行为,建立了刻画两种回收模式的两层规划模型;进而假定生产商委托第三方企业负责回收,分析了生产商、零售商和第三方回收企业之间的博弈行为,建立了对应此一主两从博弈结构的带均衡约束的两层规划模型.对所得模型进行了模型求解,得到了三种回收模式下双渠道闭环分散式供应链的最优直销价、零售价和回收再制造率决策.通过数值算例对上述三种回收模式进行了比较分析,并对刻画网上直销吸引力的相关参数进行了灵敏度分析.研究发现,生产商负责回收时的回收再制造率最高;网上直销具有激发潜在需求(正效应)和吸引零售市场需求发生转移(负效应)的双重效应等.     

竞争环境下供应链的BOPS合作策略及其对交通拥堵改善的影响

针对由一个拥有线上直销渠道的制造商以及一个线下零售商组成的供应链,考虑消费者对不同渠道的偏好构建了供应链博弈模型,研究了竞争环境下制造商与零售商的最优BOPS合作策略,并分析了BOPS合作在改善交通拥堵方面的作用。研究表明,BOPS合作在缓解供应链双重边际效应的同时会加剧渠道之间的价格竞争,所以并不总是对供应链有利;仅当消费者线上渠道偏好程度比较低且线下麻烦成本比较大时,制造商和零售商才会都从BOPS合作中受益从而自愿达成合作,其他情形下制造商可根据供应链利润变化设计转移支付契约促成与线下零售商的BOPS合作并实现双赢;此外,一定条件下BOPS合作能够通过调整渠道需求结构,在保证供应链成员利润的同时对交通拥堵改善也带来正向作用。     

间接和混合渠道下零售商引入自有品牌的影响分析

自有品牌的引入使渠道中制造商和零售商的市场绩效发生了较大变化。本文构建了两个制造商和一个零售商情境下零售商引入自有品牌的模型,分析了在间接渠道和混合渠道两种条件下引入自有品牌对零售商、制造商市场绩效的影响。通过分析表明,在间接渠道和混合渠道下,零售商引入自有品牌后,一方面会导致制造商品牌的批发价格、零售价格和制造商利润的降低,对制造商不利;另一方面能增加渠道总利润、零售商利润及零售商在整个渠道中的利润分成,零售商应该将自有品牌的战略定位为高质高价的品牌,而非低价低质的原始状态型品牌,而制造商单纯靠改变销售渠道模式的策略并不足以对抗自有品牌的冲击。     

基于促销和延保的渠道入侵与订货时序策略

针对单个制造商和单个零售商组成的二级供应链,制造商一方面考虑是否开拓电子商务市场而建立直销渠道与零售商展开渠道竞争,另一方面为刺激市场需求开展促销活动并对所有消费者提供有偿延保服务。分别针对先后订货和同时订货两种情形,刻画了不同入侵成本下制造商的最优入侵、促销、定价以及销售策略,并分析了制造商渠道入侵策略对零售商订货决策和盈利能力的影响。研究表明：满足入侵成本阈值条件时,渠道入侵有利于改善制造商利润;同时订货会降低制造商的入侵动机和零售商利润;在延保服务价格敏感系数和促销成本系数满足相关约束时,零售商能够从制造商渠道入侵中攫取更多利润,实现供应链节点企业的互利共赢;无论订货时序如何,渠道入侵总会提高促销努力水平和延保服务价格。