Whole field surface roughness measurement by laser speckle correlation technique

This paper describes a speckle correlation technique for the determination of surface roughness, ranging from 1.6 to 50 μm. Instead of moving the laser beam, the specimen is rotated to achieve angular speckle correlation (ASC) in the far-field plane. The technique is simple and requires minimum optical alignment. The experimental results show a good agreement with the standard specimen of known roughness. An error analysis on the experiment has been carried out. Together with the theoretical curves, the roughness values can be easily related to the change of incidence angle at a particular visibility of the correlation fringes between two speckle patterns.     

Analysis of speckle images to assess surface roughness

Digital speckle images are photographed for different aluminum rough surfaces using a CCD camera. The obtained speckle images are fed to a PC and analyzed making use of the MATLAB program. The computerized binary images are investigated. The signal-to-noise ratio is computed from these numerical images. It is shown that the surface roughness of the examined surfaces is dependent upon the degree of agglomeration of the speckle images.     

Continuous-wave ultrasound reflectometry for surface roughness imaging applications

Background

Measurement of surface roughness irregularities that result from various sources such as manufacturing processes, surface damage, and corrosion, is an important indicator of product quality for many nondestructive testing (NDT) industries. Many techniques exist, however because of their qualitative, time-consuming and direct-contact modes, it is of some importance to work out new experimental methods and efficient tools for quantitative estimation of surface roughness.

Objective and method

Here we present continuous-wave ultrasound reflectometry (CWUR) as a novel nondestructive modality for imaging and measuring surface roughness in a non-contact mode. In CWUR, voltage variations due to phase shifts in the reflected ultrasound waves are recorded and processed to form an image of surface roughness.

Results

An acrylic test block with surface irregularities ranging from 4.22 μm to 19.05 μm as measured by a coordinate measuring machine (CMM), is scanned by an ultrasound transducer having a diameter of 45 mm, a focal distance of 70 mm, and a central frequency of 3 MHz. It is shown that CWUR technique gives very good agreement with the results obtained through CMM inasmuch as the maximum average percent error is around 11.5%.

Conclusion

Images obtained here demonstrate that CWUR may be used as a powerful non-contact and quantitative tool for nondestructive inspection and imaging of surface irregularities at the micron-size level with an average error of less than 11.5%.     

Quantitative phase retrieval in dynamic laser speckle interferometry

The rapid progress of modern manufacturing and inspection technologies has posed stringent requirements on optical techniques for vibration characterization and dynamic testing. Due to its simplicity, accuracy and whole-field characters, laser speckle interferometry has served as one of the major techniques for dynamic measurement. In this paper, a two-step phase shifting method is developed for quantitative speckle phase measurement, which helps to eliminate the specklegrams needed for phase evaluation and facilitate dynamic measurement. Unlike previously reported two-step methods using fringe patterns with known phase shift of π/2, a small unknown phase shift is employed instead in the proposed method, which eliminates the need for phase shifting devices. Further investigation shows that small phase shifts are preferable over large phase shifts in this method. Shearographic experiments conducted have demonstrated the effectiveness of the proposed technique.     

Self-marking phase-stepping electronic speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI) for determining a phase map with least residues

Different from most of the electronic speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI) approaches, which involve the correlation fringe formulation followed by speckle noise elimination (or filtering), to develop a wrapped phase map, this study adopts the approach proposed by Creath in 1985 instead. However, Creath's approach is so critical of its applying interferograms, the influence of which is dependent on the robustness of the applied phase-shifting algorithm and the accuracy of the phase shifter. The self-marking technique proposed by Huang and Chou in 2000 is adopted herein to help overcome any unfavorable conditioning, including hysteresis, nonlinearity or plane tilting, of the pieozo-electrical transducer (PZT), to enable the successful implementation of the Creath's method. With its help, the whole phase stepping history of a practical work (i.e., an ESPI experiment for the present study) can be fully recorded and monitored. Thus, the required phase stepping frames can be accordingly decided and their further calculation will yield a phase map with least number of residues.     

Volume-grating phase-shifting digital speckle pattern interferometry used for measurement of out-of-plane displacement field

A new digital speckle pattern interferometry, called volume-grating phase-shifting digital speckle pattern interferometry, is discussed in this paper. The out-of-plane displacement field of a bent plate can be quantitatively measured using volume-grating phase-shifting digital speckle pattern interferometry proposed in this paper. Theoretical and experimental results, as well as absolute errors, are given.     

Measurement of sub-surface delaminations in carbon fibre composites using high-speed phase-shifted speckle interferometry and temporal phase unwrapping

A high-speed phase-shifted speckle interferometer has been developed recently for studying dynamic events. Speckle interferograms are continuously recorded by a CCD camera operating at 1 kHz with temporal phase shifting carried out by a Pockels cell running at the same frequency. Temporal phase unwrapping through sequences of more than 1000 frames allows the determination of time-varying absolute displacement maps. This paper presents the application of this speckle interferometry system to the detection and measurement of sub-surface delamination defects in carbon fibre specimens. The influence of re-referencing the temporal phase unwrapping algorithm after different time intervals is analysed to reduce the random phase errors produced by speckle decorrelation and vibration. The performance of several phase-shifting algorithms to minimize the influence of the vibration noise caused by the vacuum pump used to load the specimen is also investigated.     

A comparative study of phase-shifting algorithms in digital speckle pattern interferometry

Digital speckle pattern interferometry (DSPI) is a tool for making qualitative as well as quantitative measurements of deformation of objects. Phase-shifting algorithms in DSPI are useful for extracting quantitative deformation data from the system. Comparative studies of the different phase-shifting algorithms in DSPI for object deformation measurement are presented. Static and quasi-dynamic deformation of the object can be measured using these algorithms. Error compensating five-step phase-shifting method is used for the algorithms.     

Computation of surface roughness using optical correlation

The laser speckle photography is used to calculate the average surface roughness from the autocorrelation function of the aluminum diffuse objects. The computed results of surface roughness obtained from the profile shapes of the autocorrelation function of the diffuser show good agreement with the results obtained by the stylus profile meter.      

Homogeneous model for surface roughness in identical double layer system

In this paper a homogeneous model for surface roughness in the identical double layer system has been presented. It has been shown that the reflectance change in non-absorbing layers is directly proportional to the square of the total thickness of the layers. In an absorbing layer, it has been shown that the thickness of each layer is equal to the surface roughness of the identical double layer system. The extinction coefficients of both layers are directly proportional to the thickness of that layer.     

利用散斑图像测量表面粗糙度的计算机模拟及实验

从菲涅耳-基尔霍夫衍射公式出发推导出了粗糙面近场衍射方程。通过对观察面散斑光强统计特性的分析,提出了采用镜射光强分量法测量表面粗糙度的思想。为验证该方法的有效性,首先用计算机模拟产生具有不同统计特性的随机表面,然后对由随机表面产生的散斑场及其光强分布进行计算。计算结果表明,与传统的散斑对比度法相比,散斑镜射光强分量法测量弱粗糙表面粗糙度具有更大的适用范围和更高的测量精度,克服了散斑对比度法易受表面横向相关长度影响的缺点。通过实验对计算机模拟结果进行了验证。     

Deformation field induced by spherical indentation: numerical analysis and experimental measurement by speckle interferometry

The present paper describes an experimental procedure for the measurement of the displacement field around a spherical indentation. The measurements were performed by a speckle interferometer designed for the detection on small areas of one or more oblique components of displacement; the indentations were made by a standard durometer used for metals.The experiments were carried out on a hardened and tempered steel, previously characterized by a standard tensile test; the results are in accordance with the numerical results obtained by an elasto-plastic FEM analysis.     

Effect of surface lay in the surface roughness evaluation using machine vision

This work explores the influence of orientation of surface lay pattern of the machined components, while quantifying the surface roughness using machine vision approach. The surface images are captured from milled low carbon steel specimens with different roughness values using a vision system with coaxial lighting arrangement at different angular orientations of the work pieces (0°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 90°, 120°, 135°, 150°, and 180°). The captured images are subjected to preprocessing in order to retain the frequency components that attribute to roughness using a Gaussian filter by adapting the filtering procedures specified in ISO 4288. Numerous image based parameters such as gray level average (G_a), gray level co-occurrence matrix based image quantification parameters namely contrast, correlation, energy or uniformity, maximum probability and differential box courting based fractal dimension are computed from the surface images captured at different angular positions of the work piece. The computed vision based parameters are compared and correlated with the roughness average (R_a) obtained using a stylus instrument and the results are analyzed. The results clearly indicated that it is important to consider the orientation of the work piece when the machine vision approach is used to quantify the surface texture parameters.     

A microprism array as shearing device for speckle shearing interferometry

In most speckle shearing interferometers image shearing is performed by means of a Michelson interferometer or by means of a wedge prism covering half of the aperture of the camera objective. We present a speckle shearing interferometer which utilizes a microprism array for this purpose. It is placed between the test specimen and the camera. In comparision with a wedge prism it exhibits some advantages: it needs no exact alignment, it works with any camera lens, the shearing distance and direction of shearing can be easily changed by changing position (resp. angular orientation) of the element. Phase stepping for computer evaluation of the speckle shearing interferograms is performed by the translation of the shearing element. A special translation stage was developed. Experimental results are presented. The interferometer is suited for microcomponent and microsystem testing.     

Microscopic TV holography for MEMS deflection and 3-D surface profile characterization

Recent industrial demands for greater product quality in the fields of microelements and micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) generate new challenges for metrology. The fast-growing MEMS industry requires a robust non-destructive quantitative measurement system for the characterization of their performance, reliability and integrity. A microscopic TV holographic system using a long working distance microscope with an extended zoom range has been developed for microelements and MEMS deformation and 3-D surface profile analysis. The system is capable of evaluating both rough and smooth surfaces. Noisy wrapped phase map is a usual problem in speckle interferometry. We have compared several phase-shifting algorithms for evaluation of speckle phase for their usefulness in generating less-noisy phase maps. The experimental results on a MEMS pressure sensor for out-of-plane deflection and 3-D surface profile analysis are presented.     

A digital spatial carrier for wavelet phase extraction

In this paper, we present a new method to digitally add a high-frequency spatial carrier in order to use the wavelet phase extraction algorithm, which leads directly to the phase without the unwrapping process. The method needs a fringe pattern and its π/2 shifted version. The application is performed with two shifted fringe patterns obtained from the phase shifting images of the thermomechanical study of an MOS power transistor. A comparison with the phase shifting results is made.     

Geometric effects on surface roughness in precipitation

We investigate the branching of an advancing precipitation front to a nonplanar shape as the solute concentration in a supersaturated solution is increased beyond its critical value. We aim to learn whether new branches can be detected by measuring the speed of the front. We present a condition that determines whether a cross section of arbitrary shape will lead to a pitchfork or to a transcritical branching. Both are possible. Rectangles and circles imply pitchfork bifurcations, equilateral triangles and hexagons imply transcritical bifurcations.     

Speckle interferometry for measurement of continuous deformations

Improvements of a method for measurement of continuous displacements and deformations with digital phase shifting speckle pattern interferometry are presented. The method is based on an algorithm that, with the knowledge of the initial phase, only needs one image at a time to evaluate continuos phase changes due to object deformations. In the improved method, the initial random phase of the speckle pattern is evaluated using a number of phase-shifted images before the deformation under study. This is used for increasing the accuracy of the initial phase estimation and reducing influences from image noise and other measurement disturbances. The phase-shifted speckle patterns are used as references for comparison with the speckle patterns of the deformed object, thereby increasing the reliability and accuracy of the phase estimations of the deformed patterns. The technique can be used for measuring deformations such as transients and other dynamic events, heat expansion as well as other phenomena where it is difficult to accomplish phase shifting during deformation.