Characterization of shock accelerometers using Davies bar and laser interferometer

In this paper, we propose a novel method for evaluating the frequency response of shock accelerometers using Davies bar and interferometry. The method adopts elastic wave pulses propagating in a thin circular bar for the generation of high accelerations. The accelerometer to be examined is attached to one end of the bar and experiences high accelerations of the order of 10³∼10⁵ m/s². A laser interferometer system is newly designed for the absolute measurement of the bar end motion. It can measure the motion of a diffuse surface specimen at a speed of 10⁻³ ∼10⁰ m/s. Uncertainty of the velocity measurement is estimated to be±6×10⁻⁴ m/s, proving a high potential for use in the primary calibration of shock accelerometers. Frequency characteristics of the accelerometer are determined by comparing the accelerometer's output with velocity data of the interferometry in the frequency domain. Two piezoelectric-type accelerometers are tested in the experiment, and their frequency characteristics are obtained over a wide frequency range up to several ten kilohertz. It is also shown that the results obtained using strain gages are consistent with those by this new method. Paper was presented at the 1992 SEM Spring Conference on Experimental Mechanics held in Las Vegas, NV on June 8–11.     

Effect of accelerometer mass on the flexural motion of plates

When the flexural acceleration of a plate is measured by an accelerometer, the mass of the accelerometer tends to reduce the magnitude of the acceleration.This study establishes a simple analytical relation between the accelerometer mass and the corresponding reduction of acceleration. This has been done by studying an idealized diffraction problem for the plate flexural waves.The complex frequency response depends upon the accelerometer mass, the frequency of the flexural wave, the plate thickness and the material parameters of the plate.A numerical filtering method is used to bring an experimental result and a corresponding numerical prediction closer together.     

Performance evaluation of accelerometers used for penetration experiments

We present a Hopkinson bar technique to evaluate the performance of accelerometers that measure large amplitude pulses, such as those experienced during projectile penetration tests. An aluminum striker bar impacts a thin Plexiglas or copper disk placed on the impact surface of an aluminum incident bar. The Plexiglas or copper disk pulse shaper produces a nondispersive stress wave that propagates in the aluminum incident bar and eventually interacts with a tungsten disk at the end of the bar. A quartz stress gage is placed between the aluminum bar and tungsten disk, and an accelerometer is mounted to the free end of the tungsten disk. An analytical model shows that the rise time of the incident stress pulse in the aluminum bar is long enough and the tungsten disk length is short enough that the response of the tungsten disk can be accurately approximated as rigid-body motion. We measure stress at the aluminum bar-tungsten disk interface with the quartz gage and we calculate rigid-body acceleration of the tungsten disk from Newton's Second Law and the stress gage data. In addition, we measure strain-time at two locations on the aluminum incident bar to show that the incident strain pulse is nondispersive and we calculate rigid-body acceleration of the tungsten disk from a model that uses this strain-time data. Thus, we can compare accelerations measured with the accelerometer and accelerations calculated with models that use stress gage and strain gage measurements. We show that all three acceleration-time pulses are in very close agreement for acceleration amplitudes to about 20,000 G.     

Thermal optimization on micromachined convective accelerometer

 A kind of micromachined convective accelerometer without solid proof mass is numerically and experimentally studied in this paper. The accelerometer consists of a micro heater and two temperature sensors which measure the temperature difference between two symmetrical positions on both sides of the micro heater. The temperature difference is caused by free convection due to acceleration. Thermal optimization on the accelerometer is conducted based on numerical simulation. Three important indexes of the accelerometer, linearity, sensitivity and frequency response are discussed respectively. The results show that linearity relates with the non-dimensional number Gr, only when Gr is in the range from 10⁻² to 10³, good linearity can be achieved. The optimum sensor position for high sensitivity and good linearity is near at x/D=0.3. An increase of heating power or cavity size leads to an increase in the sensitivity. The working media that has small density ρ and large thermal diffusivity α is favorable for fast frequency response, the one having large density ρ and small kinematic viscosity υ will be advantageous for high sensitivity. Experimental tests prove that the optimized convective accelerometer has good linearity, high sensitivity and preferable frequency response. Received on 9 March 2001 / Published online: 29 November 2001     

A pulse-expansion wave tube for nucleation studies at high pressures

 The design and performance of a new pulse-expansion wave tube for nucleation studies at high pressures are described. The pulse-expansion wave tube is a special shock tube in which a nucleation pulse is formed at the endwall of the high pressure section. The nucleation pulse is due to reflections of the initial shock wave at a local widening situated in the low pressure section at a short distance from the diaphragm. The nucleation pulse has a duration of the order of 200 μs, while nucleation pressures that can be achieved range from 1 to 50 bar total pressure. Droplet size and droplet number density can accurately be determined by a 90°-Mie light scattering method and a light extinction method. The range of nucleation rates that can be measured is 10⁸ cm^-3 s^-1<J<10¹¹ cm^-3 s^-1. We will illustrate the functioning and possibilities of the new pulse-expansion wave tube by nucleation rate measurements in the gas-vapour mixture nitrogen/water in the temperature range 200–260 K, and in the mixture methane/n-nonane as a function of supersaturation S at various total pressures up to 40 bar and temperatures around 240 K. Received: 5 June 1996/Accepted: 9 December 1996     

An experimental method for considering dispersion and attenuation in a viscoelastic Hopkinson bar

An experimental method is developed to perform Hopkinson tests by means of viscoelastic bars by considering the wave propagation attenuation and dispersion due to the material rheological properties and the bar radial inertia (geometric effect). A propagation coefficient, representative of the wave dispersion and attenuation, is evaluated experimentally. Thus, the Pochhammer and Chree frequency equation is not necessary. Any bar cross-section shapes can be employed, and the knowledge of the bar mechanical properties is useless. The propagation coefficients for two PMMA bars with different diameters and for an elastic aluminum alloy bar are evaluated. These coefficients are used to determine the normal forces at the free end of a bar and at the ends of two bars held in contact. As an application, the mechanical impedance of an accelerometer is evaluated. A part of this work has been performed in the Laboratoire Matériaux Endommagement Fiabilité of the Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Arts et Métiers de Bordeaux.     

Determination of dynamic yield strengths with embedded manganin gages in plate-impact and long-rod experiments

The dynamic yield strengths of three steels were determined at strain rates of about 10³ s⁻¹ and 10⁶ s⁻¹. The measurements at 10³ s⁻¹ were obtained by a new technique based on measurements of large amplitude elastic waves in long bars struck by rigid flyer plates. Embedded manganin gages were used to measure stress, and the gage records were long enough to observe subsequent reverberations between the bar free end and the plastically deformed impact end. The measurements at 10⁶ s⁻¹ were made with a slightly modified version of a conventional flyer-plate impact configuration. The data are combined with static results to show the behavior of these steels at strain rates of 10⁻³ s⁻¹ to 10⁶ s⁻¹.     

An investigation of electromagnetic wave propagation in plasma by shock tube

This paper presents the electromagnetic wave propagation characteristics in plasma and the attenuation coefficients of the microwave in terms of the parameters he, v, w, L, wb. The φ800 mm high temperature shock tube has been used to produce a uniform plasma. In order to get the attenuation of the electromagnetic wave through the plasma behind a shock wave, the microwave transmission has been used to measure the relative change of the wave power. The working frequency is f = (2-35)GHz (ω=2πf, wave length A =15cm-8mm). The electron density in the plasma is ne = (3&#215;10^10-1&#215;10^14) cm^-3. The collision frequency v = (1&#215;10^8-6&#215;10^10) Hz. The thickness of the plasma layer L = (2-80)cm. The electron circular frequency ωb=eBo/me, magnetic flux density B0 = (0-0.84)T. The experimental results show that when the plasma layer is thick (such as L/λ≥10), the correlation between the attenuation coefficients of the electromagnetic waves and the parameters ne,v,ω, L determined from the measurements are in good agreement with the theoretical predictions of electromagnetic wave propagations in the uniform infinite plasma. When the plasma layer is thin (such as when both L and A are of the same order), the theoretical results are only in a qualitative agreement with the experimental observations in the present parameter range, but the formula of the electromagnetic wave propagation theory in an uniform infinite plasma can not be used for quantitative computations of the correlation between the attenuation coefficients and the parameters ne,v,ω, L. In fact, if ω&lt;ωp, v^2&lt;&lt;ω^2, the power attenuations K of the electromagnetic waves obtained from the measurements in the thin-layer plasma are much smaller than those of the theoretical predictions. On the other hand, if ω&gt;ωp, v^2&lt;&lt;ω^2 (just v≈f), the measurements are much larger than the theoretical results. Also, we have measured the electromagnetic wave power attenuation value under the magnetic field and without a magnetic field. The result indicates that the value measured under the magnetic field shows a distinct improvement.     

Hopkinson拉杆的入射波波形整形实验研究

目前,分离式Hopkinson杆实验技术已经被广泛用于测试材料在10~2~10~4s~(-1)应变率范围内的动态力学特性。为了抑制入射波的高频振荡,实现恒定应变率加载,本文利用分离式Hopkinson拉杆(SHTB)实验装置,研究了加载金属短杆(2A12T4铝合金)及整形垫片(纸板、PVC软塑料及带磁性胶皮)对入射波波形的影响。实验结果表明,整形垫片降低了入射应力脉冲的高频振荡,获得了比较平滑的入射应力脉冲,延长了上升时间。同时,利用所得的波形整形结果,对2A12T4铝合金进行了拉伸应力波脉冲加载的拉伸和断裂实验测试。     

A new experimental method in determining crack propagation transition temperature in steel

This study concentrates on a new experimental method for determining propagation transition temperature (PTT) in carbon steel (0.45% C). The method is based on the Hopkinson bar concept, by which the nature of pressure-time relationship can be studied when a pulse is applied at the active end of the bar. This concept enables one to determine terminal crack velocity using the round tensile specimen of a proper geometry with the V-notch at the half of its length; the total speimen length is 900 mm. When such a specimen is pulled in a testing machine, the fracture occurs at the notch cross section. The fracture event produces elastic waves which can be analyzed, and thus, the crack velocity can be estimated. This technique has been applied in several temperatures to monitor crack velocity changes. The analysis of oscillograms indicated a sharp change in the average crack velocity as well as in the average acceleration within a very narrow range of temperatures. It has been observed that the propagation transition temperature occurs within the limits ΔT ≈ 10 K, and for steel 0.45%C PPT ≈ 252 K.     

Hopkinson曲杆型双向拉伸加载设计探讨

为了实现对材料或结构的双向高应变率同步拉伸加载,基于曲杆中弹性应力波传播理论和Hopkinson杆原理,首先在对称的人字形曲杆结构中同时产生和传递两路压缩波,再经过接触转接头反射形成沿拉伸加载杆传播的双向拉伸波,实现对试样的双向动态拉伸。同时,为理解人字形曲杆几何构形对弹性压缩波传播的影响规律,对该加载装置进行了动力学分析和ABAQUS有限元模拟。研究发现,理想方波构形的压缩弹性波经过曲杆传播后,方波的平台段随着杆弯曲角度的增大出现前高后低的倾斜现象,同时大曲率杆引起的波形失真更严重。为获取常规方波或梯形波的平台段,也可采用定量优化的锥形撞击杆,产生前低后高的加载波,来抵消曲杆传递中的倾斜失真。最后,为了验证该加载系统的有效性,搭建了小型人字形曲杆高应变率双向拉伸装置进行试验测试。结果表明,该装置实现了脉宽约为54 μs的双向拉伸加载波良好的同步,两路波形起始点时间差可以控制在约2.5 μs以内,幅值差约6×10?6。同时对2024铝合金试样进行了双向拉伸试验,取得良好的试验效果。     

The investigation on dynamic fracture behavour of materials under compressive-shear combined stress waves

In this paper, an improved plate impact experimental technique is presented for studying dynamic fracture mechanism of materials, under the conditions that the impacting loading is provided by a single pulse and the loading time is in the sub-microsecond range. The impacting tests are carried out on the pressure-shear gas gun. The loading rate achieved is dK/dt∼10⁸ MPa m^1/2s⁻¹. With the elimination of influence of the specimen boundary, the plane strain state of a semi-infinite crack in an infinite elastic plate is used to simulate the deformation fields of crack tip. The single pulses are obtained by using the “momentum trap” technique. Therefore, the one-time actions of the single pulse are achieved by eradicating the stress waves reflected from the specimen boundary or diffracted from the crack surfaces. In the current study, some important phenomena have been observed. The special loading of the single pulse can bring about material damage around crack tip, and affect the material behavior, such as kinking and branching of the crack propagation. Failure mode transitions from mode I to mode II crack are observed under asymmetrical impact conditions. The mechanisms of the dynamic crack propagation are consistent with the damage failure model. The project supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 19672066 and 18981180-4) and the Key Project of Chinese Academy of Sciences (No. KJ951-1-20)     

Non-linear water waves on shearing flows

This article is devoted to the study of the propagations of the nonlinear water waves on the shear flows. Assuming μ=kh is small andε/μ ²∼O(1), and the base flow is uniformly sheared, the modified Boussinesq equation is obtained. We calculate propagations of the single solitary wave with vorticity Γ=0,>0 and <0. The influences of the vorticity are manifested. At the end examples of the interactions of two solitary waves, moving in opposite and the same directions, are given. Besides the phase shift, there also occur second wavelets after head-on collision. The project supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China     

The development and use of a torsional Hopkinson-bar apparatus

A technique is described by means of which torsional waves of large, essentially constant amplitude can be generated in an elastic bar. Waves with rise times of order 25 μs and maximum angular velocities of order 10³ rad.s^?1 have been achieved and used to test tubular specimens at shear-strain rates up to 15×10³ s^?1. Results are presented for mild steel tested at 2×10³ s^?1, and it is shown that the flow stress correlates well with the trend found at lower rates using conventional methods. The measured drop of stress at yield, however, was considerably smaller in the present tests than in earlier work; this is attributed to the generation of flexural waves which reach the specimen at the same time as the torsional wave.     

On the propagation of elastic waves through composite media II

Summary The propagation of elastic waves (both longitudinal and transverse) through polyurethane rubbers filled with different amounts of sodium chloride particles was studied at 0.8 MHz and 5 MHz. At a constant filler concentration (∼10% by volume), the velocity of these waves appeared to be independent of filler size. On the other hand, both velocities were found to increase with filler content. From the wave velocities, the effective modulus for longitudinal waves, L, bulk modulus, K, and shear modulus, G, were calculated according to the relations for a homogeneous isotropic material. All three moduli appear to be monotonically increasing functions of filler content, c, over the whole experimentally accessible temperature range (−80°C to +80°C for L and K; −80°C to about −30°C for G) and they, moreover, reflect the glass-rubber transition of the binder. Poissons ratio, μ, was found to decrease with increasing filler content and shows a rise at about −30°C as a result of the approach of the glass-rubber transition. The attenuation of the elastic waves was also measured in the temperature ranges mentioned. For filler particles beyond a critical size both tan δ_L and tan δ_G in the hard region are independent of the filler content within the accuracy of the measurements. The critical size depends on the type of wave and on its frequency. In the rubbery region, however, tan δ_L increases with particle size (at a constant content of 10% by volume) and even shows an enhancement with the smallest particles (1–5 μ) at 0.8 MHz. Moreover, it is found that for the same filler size tan δ_L increases with filler content. In some cases an anomalous damping behaviour was found, such that in the rubbery region the attenuation rises indefinitely with temperature. For filler particles larger than the above-mentioned critical size, tan δ_G and tan δ_L increase in the hard region as well. Finally, the experimental results are compared with existing theories on the elastic properties of and wave propagation through composite media.     

Effect of rigid boundary on propagation of torsional surface waves in porous elastic layer

The paper presents the effect of a rigid boundary on the propagation of torsional surface waves in a porous elastic layer over a porous elastic half-space using the mechanics of the medium derived by Cowin and Nunziato (Cowin, S. C. and Nunziato, J. W. Linear elastic materials with voids. Journal of Elasticity, 13(2), 125–147 (1983)). The velocity equation is derived, and the results are discussed. It is observed that there may be two torsional surface wave fronts in the medium whereas three wave fronts of torsional surface waves in the absence of the rigid boundary plane given by Dey et al. (Dey, S., Gupta, S., Gupta, A. K., Kar, S. K., and De, P. K. Propagation of torsional surface waves in an elastic layer with void pores over an elastic half-space with void pores. Tamkang Journal of Science and Engineering, 6(4), 241–249 (2003)). The results also reveal that in the porous layer, the Love wave is also available along with the torsional surface waves. It is remarkable that the phase speed of the Love wave in a porous layer with a rigid surface is different from that in a porous layer with a free surface. The torsional waves are observed to be dispersive in nature, and the velocity decreases as the oscillation frequency increases.     

石英玻璃杆Taylor撞击实验的数值模拟

采用离散元方法模拟石英玻璃杆Taylor撞击问题,再现了其破坏过程:在撞击端,杆以压缩失效波的形式破坏;在自由端,出现了密集的拉伸层裂破坏. 分析表明:层裂是失效波阵面应力快速下降引起的追赶卸载波,与弹性压缩前驱波在自由端反射引起的迎面卸载波相互作用的结果;随着撞击速度的增大,撞击端失效波造成的压缩破坏区域损伤程度增大,反射端层裂破坏损伤区域减小. 进一步对失效波阵面的结构变化及其波速问题进行了研究,发现失效区域随着扩张变成一段裂纹逐渐由密到稀的区段,将此区段分为高损伤区和低损伤区,研究发现由稀疏微裂纹组成的低损伤区的前端面传播速度和弹性前驱波速基本相同,为固定值;而高损伤区前端面的裂纹密度随着传播距离的增加变稀,直至过渡为低损伤区,其传播具有显著的速度衰减、端面模糊直至停止的过程. 高损伤前端面的平均速度随着撞击速度的增大而增大,并逐渐趋近于弹性波速. 最后与已有实验做了对比,发现实验中高速摄影观察到的玻璃中"失效波"阵面实际上是高损伤前端面,而稀疏的低损伤微裂纹很难捕捉.      

On wave propagation in inextensible elastic bodies

In this paper we study the propagation of acceleration waves in inextensible elastic bodies. ¹ While the computations are but an exercise, the results are interesting and quite unlike the corresponding results for unconstrained bodies. Indeed, a wave travelling in the direction of inextensibility must necessarily be transverse, and, when the reaction stress is compressive and sufficiently large, the corresponding speed of propagation becomes non-real, so that even transverse waves fail to exist.We also study (infinitesimal) progressive waves and we find the corresponding propagation condition to be the same as that for acceleration waves. Here, however, non-real speeds of propagation have a definite physical meaning: they imply exponential growth of the wave. Thus, in particular, when the reaction stress is compressive and sufficiently large, a transverse progressive wave travelling in the direction of inextensibility grows without bound. We conjecture that this indicates the presence of local buckling. ²     

Measurements of wave-variance and velocity spectra in breaking waves

Displacements of mechanical waves superposed onto wind waves were measured with a laser displacement gauge in a wind-wave tank. The effects of wave breaking, especially the spilling breaking type, on the wave-variance spectra are investigated. In the absence of wave breaking, the quasi-equilibrium spectrum consists of an f ^–7/3 subrange in the capillary regime, and its spectral density increases with increasing wind speed. When intense spilling breaking occurs, the water surface is saturated with small-scale features that cause not only an increase in the spectral density but also a reduction in the slope of the spectrum at high frequencies. Velocity components under the water surface were measured with a laser Doppler velocimeter. The energy spectra of the vertical and longitudinal velocity components in breaking waves are practically identical in the frequency range near the dominant wave frequency. At higher frequencies, the spectra generally follow Kolmogorov's –5/3 law. In the intermediate frequency range, we observed a higher spectral density for the vertical velocity component than for its longitudinal counterpart. These results suggest that turbulence energy is transferred from the vertical component to the longitudinal component in breaking waves. The acceleration of the water motion becomes as large as gravitational acceleration when intense wave breaking takes place. The flow field in breaking waves is highly dissipative.     

One-dimensional shock wave interaction with rubber and low-porosity foam

One-dimensional interaction between a planar shock wave and a rubber or low-porosity foam is investigated experimentally and numerically. The considered polyurethane foam is of high density (ρ _c=290 kg/m³) and lowporosity (ϕ=0.76), and this corresponds to an intermediate condition between rubber and high-porosity foam. Stress-strain relations for the low-porosity foam are investigated by machine tests, which show larger deformation against compressive force and higher non-linearity in stress-strain curve as compared with rubber. Also the low-porosity foam shows a hysteresis cycle. Experiments on shock wave-foam interactions are conducted by using a shock tube. Experimental time history of the surface stress of the foam at the end of the shock tube does not show shock type stress increase, but continuous excessive stress rise can be seen, and then dumping vibration approaching to gas dynamic pressure of the reflected shock wave is followed, and the highest stress amounts about 3∼4 times of the pressure after the reflected gas dynamic shock wave. Interactive motions of gas and the low-porosity foam are analyzed using the Lagrangean coordinates system. An elastic model for a low-porosity foam is assumed to be a single elastic material with the measured stress-strain relation. Results of numerical simulations are compared with the shock tube experiments, which show essentially same stress variations with experimental results.