High-speed imaging for direct-injection gasoline engine research and development

In recent years, new laser and camera technology have enabled the development of high-speed imaging diagnostics for measurements at frame rates commensurate with the time scales of turbulent mixing, combustion, and emission formation in internal combustion engines. The ability to study the evolution of in-cylinder flow, fuel/air mixing, ignition, and combustion within individual cycles and for many consecutive cycles provides new insights into the physics and chemistry of internal combustion engine performance. Data for model development and device development are obtained with unprecedented access to the identification of random events such as cycle to cycle variation and ignition instabilities. This paper summarizes high-speed diagnostics developments with a focus on application to spark-ignition direct-injection gasoline engines. A range of optical techniques is described along with examples of applications in research and near-production engines. Measurements of in-cylinder velocities were conducted with particle image velocimetry. The spray evolution was followed with Mie scattering. Quantitative fuel distributions were recorded with laser-induced fluorescence. Fuel impingement on surfaces was quantified with refractive index matching. Combined velocity and fuel measurements were used to study ignition reliability. Chemiluminescence techniques provided insights into the evolution of the spark plasma as well as the growing flame kernel. Chemiluminescence and black body radiation imaging yielded insights into the formation and oxidation of soot.     

Laser Diagnostic Study of the Mechanism of a Periodic Combustion Instability in a Gas Turbine Model Combustor

To investigate the mechanisms leading to sustained thermoacoustic oscillations in swirl flames, a gas turbine model combustor was equipped with an optically accessible combustion chamber allowing the application of various laser techniques. The flame investigated was a swirled CH₄/air diffusion flame (thermal power 10 kW, global equivalence ratio φ = 0.75) at atmospheric pressure which exhibited self-excited thermoacoustic oscillations at a frequency of 290 Hz. In separate experiments, the flow velocities were measured by laser Doppler velocimetry, the flame structures and heat release rates by planar laser-induced fluorescence of CH and by OH chemiluminescence, and the joint probability density functions of the major species concentrations, mixture fraction, and temperature by laser Raman scattering. All measurements were performed in a phase-locked mode, i.e., triggered with respect to the oscillating pressure level measured by a microphone. The results revealed large periodic variations of all measured quantities and showed that the heat release rate was correlated with the degree of mixing of hot products with unburned fuel/air mixtures before ignition. The thermal expansion of the reacting gases had, in turn, a strong influence on the flow field and induced a periodic motion of the inner and outer recirculation zones. The combination of all results yielded a deeper understanding of the events sustaining the oscillations in the flame under investigation. The results also represent a data base that can be used for the validation and improvement of CFD codes.     

Laser-based measurements of gas-phase chemistry in non-equilibrium pulsed nanosecond discharges

Detailed experimental investigation of a non-equilibrium nanosecond pulsed discharge in premixed CH₄/air mixtures at atmospheric pressure has been carried out. The experiments demonstrated significant reductions in ignition delay and increased lean burn capability relative to conventional spark ignition. Advanced laser diagnostics have been used to identify the physical processes which lead to these improvements. The electron temperature and density properties were measured using laser Thomson scattering (LTS). Temperature measurements were performed using N₂ CARS thermometry to quantify the energy transfer in the gas mixture. Effect of the discharge on the local temperature shows the existence of the ignition of the gas mixture for equivalence ratio between 0.7 and 1.3. Fast development of a flame kernel is then observed. The experiment also shows that the flame can be sustained above the discharge due the repetitive ignition of the flame at the plasma repetition rate. Finally, OH and CH PLIF experiments were performed to confirm the large OH and CH streamer-induced production over the discharge volume. To cite this article: F. Grisch et al., C. R. Mecanique 337 (2009).     

Emission and laser-induced fluorescence imaging methods in experimental combustion

Imaging methods provide new insights into many fundamental combustion processes. Many imaging techniques have been devised in recent years and applied to a range of experiments. One particularly useful method is to seed the flow with oil particles and illuminate the domain of interest with a planar sheet of laser light. The droplets evaporate and vanish when they pass through the flame. The light scattered by the particles may be imaged for example with a CCD camera or with high-speed cinematography to show the structure and dynamics of the flame front. This technique, sometimes called laser tomography, is based on Mie scattering. It provides essentially qualitative information on the geometry and motion of the flame front. Another valuable method relies on spontaneous emission imaging. In this method the light emitted by certain radicals produced by the chemical reaction is detected by a camera and delivered to a computer for further processing. In some circumstances it is possible to deduce from this measurement the spatial distribution of heat release in the reactive flow. More quantitative data may be gathered with planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) imaging. The reactive flow is illuminated with a planar laser sheet delivered by a tunable laser. The laser light excites the fluorescence of a species that is present in the flow, which is then detected with an intensified CCD camera. The data obtained in this way can be processed to obtain spatial measurements of the species concentration. The basic principles, equipment requirements, and experimental aspects of these three imaging techniques are reviewed. Practical applications to turbulent flames are emphasized. It is shown that emission imaging applied to turbulent ducted flames yields interesting information for modeling. A second example of application is the ignition sequence of a multiple-injector combustor, of importance to modern cryogenic rocket engines. Emission and PLIF imaging have been used to obtain data on the development of the initial flame kernel and on its propagation from the first injector to the next. The images gathered in this experiment yield a unique view on the flame patterns that lead to the final stabilization of the reactive fronts. While current imaging methods are essentially qualitative, it is possible to deduce quantitative results from the data, and some of the present limitations may be overcome with more refined measurement procedures. These issues are analyzed, and future developments in this area are evaluated.     

钝体射流火焰及其点火过程的大涡模拟

钝体燃烧器广泛应用于航空发动机、燃气轮机、锅炉等设备的燃烧室中.对其点火过程的了解和控制直接关系到设备的安全运行和污染物排放等重要问题.我们采用基于火焰面/过程变量燃烧模型的大涡模拟方法对湍流非预混钝体射流火焰及其点火过程进行了详细的数值模拟.以Sydney钝体燃烧器的无反应射流和有反应甲烷/氢气(CH_4/H_2)火焰为研究对象,首先通过统计平均的数值结果与实验测量及文献数据的对比,全面检验了所用数值方法和燃烧模型;随后,详细展示了钝体燃烧器点火和火焰发展的瞬态过程;最后,对钝体射流的点火过程进行了细致的分析和表征.根据温度峰值、羟基(OH)质量分数和甲醛(CH_2O)质量分数峰值随时间的变化表征了强制点火过程的4个阶段:点火源衰减、点火触发、点火核生成和点火成功.其中,点火核驻留的空间位置位于钝体燃烧器冷态流场外侧涡的尾部回流区域附近.     

油气在持续热壁下热着火发生的数值模拟

为了对油气在持续热壁下热着火发生过程进行数值模拟,耦合化学动力学模型、流体动力学模型及辐射传热模型,建立了油气热着火的统一模型。基于实验工况,模拟了受限空间中油气在持续热壁条件下热着火发生过程,并分析了温度、压力流场的演变特征,以及不同位置处温度、压力、层流速度、湍流速度和组分质量分数的变化曲线。通过模拟,发现油气热着火过程存在3个阶段,分别为加热初始阶段、加热中间阶段和热着火发生阶段。不同阶段存在的主要原因是化学反应和流动的主导作用不同。     

Flame-Flow Interaction in Premixed Turbulent Flames During Transient Head-On Quenching

This paper reports on experimental investigations of turbulent flame-wall interaction (FWI) during transient head-on quenching (HOQ) of premixed flames. The entire process, including flame-wall approach and flame quenching, was analyzed using high repetition rate particle image velocimetry (PIV) and simultaneous flame front tracking based on laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) of the OH molecule. The influence of convection upon flame structures and flow fields was analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively for the fuels methane (CH₄) and ethylene (C₂H₄) at ? = 1. For this transient FWI, flames were initialized by laser spark ignition 5 mm above the burner nozzle. Subsequently, flames propagated against a steel wall, located 32 mm above the burner nozzle, where they were eventually quenched in the HOQ regime due to enthalpy losses. Twenty ignition events were recorded and analyzed for each fuel. Quenching distances were 179 μm for CH₄ and 159 μm for C₂H₄, which lead by nondimensionalization with flame thickness to Peclet numbers of 3.1 and 5.5, respectively. Flame wrinkling and fresh gas velocity fluctuations proved flame and flow laminarization during wall approach. Velocity fluctuations cause flame wrinkling, which is higher for CH₄ than C₂H₄ despite lower velocity fluctuations. Lewis number effects explained this phenomenon. Results from flame propagation showed that convection dominates propagation far from the wall and differences in flame propagation are related to the different laminar flame speeds of the fuels. Close to the wall flames of both fuels propagate similarly, but experimental results clearly indicate a decrease in intrinsic flame speed. In general, the experimental results are in good agreement with other experimental studies and several numerical studies, which are mainly based on direct numerical simulations.     

基于详细化学反应动力学的激光点火模型

为研究含能材料在激光作用下的点火特性,从基本守恒方程组出发,基于详细化学反应动力学模型,建立了含能材料激光点火的气相模型.利用所建立的模型对RDX在激光辐照下的点火过程进行了数值模拟,得到了点火过程中的瞬时温度分布和组分分布,对点火特性进行了分析.计算得到的不同激光功率密度下的RDX点火延迟时间与文献结果一致.     

多孔障碍物对预混火焰传播的影响

以甲烷为代表性气体,研究了半封闭管道中设置多孔障碍物对可燃气体爆炸火焰传播的影响,基于大涡模拟对实验进行了重现,对比了实验与模拟中火焰传播过程的形状、位置及速度,分析了模拟结果中火焰穿过障碍物前后的流场和表面积变化,给出了衡量火焰褶皱程度的指标及算法。结果表明:大涡模拟结果与实验结果有较好的一致性;火焰在存在障碍物的管道内传播,经历层流快速膨胀、受阻回流、湍流快速发展和脉动减速4个阶段,各阶段火焰依次分别呈现加速、减速、二次加速、二次减速的波动变化;当可燃气体在开口与点火位置同端的管道内爆炸,火焰在接近障碍物时,受管道封闭端和障碍物约束显著,而出现脉动回流现象;火焰穿过多孔障碍物后,传播速度骤升至峰值,较未穿过障碍物前的最大速度可增加58.7%;障碍物是导致火焰面破碎以及面积褶皱率增大的直接原因,火焰褶皱率最大可达44.8%,比未穿过障碍物前的最大褶皱率增大39.27%。     

Quantitative measurement of hard X-ray spectra from laser-driven fast ignition plasma

Absolute Kα line spectroscopy is proposed for studying laser–plasma interactions taking place in the Au cone-guided fast ignition targets. X-ray spectra ranging from 20 to 100 keV were quantitatively measured with a Laue spectrometer composed of a cylindrically curved crystal and a filter-absorption method for Bremsstrahlung continuum emission. The absolute sensitivities of the Laue spectrometer systems were calibrated using pre-characterized laser-produced X-ray sources and radioisotopes. The integrated reflectivity for the crystal is in good agreement with predictions by an X-ray diffraction code. The energy transfer efficiency from incident laser beams to hot electrons, as the energy transfer mechanism, is derived from this work. The absolute yield of Au and Ta Kα lines were measured in the fast ignition experimental campaign performed at Institute of Laser Engineering, Osaka University. Applying the hot electron spectrum information from electron spectrometer and scaling laws, the energy transfer efficiency from the incident LFEX, a kJ-class PW laser, to hot electrons was derived for the first time.     

OH-PLIF visualisation of radical farming supersonic combustion flows

Experimental investigations employing Planar Laser-induced fluorescence visualisation of the qualitative distribution of the OH radical (OH-PLIF), coupled with surface pressure measurements, have been made of flow in a generic, nominally two-dimensional inlet-injection radical farming supersonic combustion scramjet engine model. The test flows were provided by a hypersonic shock tunnel, and covered total enthalpies corresponding to the flight Mach number range 8.7–11.8 and approximately 150 kPa dynamic pressure. The surface pressure measurements displayed radical farming behaviour, that is a series of adjacent high and low pressure regions corresponding to successive shock/expansion structures, with no significant combustion-induced pressure rise until the second structure. OH-PLIF imaging between the first two structures provides the first direct experimental evidence of significant OH radical concentrations upstream of the ignition point in this mode of scramjet operation and shows that combustion reactions were occurring in highly localised regions in a complex turbulent and poorly micromixed fuel/air mixing layer confined to the fuel injection side of the combustor.     

New Perspectives on Turbulent Combustion: Multi-Parameter High-Speed Planar Laser Diagnostics

Over the past three decades laser combustion diagnostics have guided an improved understanding of turbulent combustion processes. Until recently, this was based on statistically independent sampling using sampling rates much slower than typical integral time-scales of turbulent flames. Recent developments in laser and camera technology enabled an increase in sampling rates by more than three orders of magnitudes. Using these new instruments for particle image velocimetry (PIV) and planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) at high sampling rates (high-speed diagnostics) allowed the resolution of integral time-scales of turbulent flames. This statistically dependent sampling is increasingly used to temporally track transients in turbulent combustion, such as flame extinction, ignition, flashback and cycle-to-cycle variations in IC engines. The simultaneous application of flow and scalar field measurements makes insights into these transients possible that were not when using statistically independent sampling with low data acquisition rates. Conditioning on distinct flame features with high-speed diagnostics enables the inclusion of time as an additional dimension. This paper reviews the emerging field of multi-parameter, high-speed, planar laser diagnostics in combustion applications. The benefit of high data acquisition rates in turbulent combustion applications is discussed in detail as well as requirements and constraints imposed by the time-scales of the investigated phenomenon are addressed. Recent developments in laser and detector hardware are highlighted, as these are the limiting factors of the sampling rate. Finally, multi-parameter high-speed measurements in combustion are summarized, with a few examples discussed in more detail.     

奇异摄动在层流预混火焰理论研究中的应用

奇异摄动被广泛应用于求取力学问题的近似解.一个典型问题就是流体力学中的边界层.郭永怀先生曾发展了适用于平板黏性流动边界层问题的奇异摄动理论.类似于流体力学中的边界层,燃烧研究中的层流预混火焰也可以通过奇异摄动理论进行分析,在燃烧研究中通常称其为大活化能渐近分析.本文介绍了大活化能渐近分析在一维平面预混火焰和球形传播火焰中的应用及相关研究进展.首先介绍了预混火焰结构及其涉及的不同特征尺度,分析了大活化能条件下出现的特征尺度分离,并给出了关于平面预混火焰大活化能渐近分析的详细推导,讨论了热辐射对火焰传播的影响;然后介绍了大活化能渐近分析在点火与球形传播火焰方面的应用,指出了只有能够同时描述点火与球形火焰传播的理论才能准确地预测临界点火条件,并讨论了考虑链式反应的点火与火焰传播理论,分析了热辐射对球形火焰传播的影响,给了关于火焰稳定性理论研究的发展趋势.最后,基于当前研究进展对未来的研究方向进行了展望,其中涉及多步化学反应、低温冷火焰、复杂流动、辐射重吸收等.      

Experimental investigation of flame/solid interactions in turbulent premixed combustion

An experimental study has been carried out to investigate the interaction between propagating turbulent premixed flames and solid obstacles. The experimental rig was configured specifically to allow detailed measurements with laser-based optical diagnostics. A wall-type solid obstacle was mounted inside a laboratory-scale combustion chamber with rectangular cross-section. The flame was initiated, by igniting a combustible mixture of methane in air at the center of the closed end of the combustion chamber. The flame front development was visualized by a high-speed (9000 frame/s) digital video camera and flame images were synchronized with ignition timing and chamber pressure data. The tests were carried out with lean, stoichiometric and rich mixtures of methane in air. The images were used to calculate highly resolved temporal and spatial data for the changes in flame shape, speed, and the length of the flame front. The results are discussed in terms of the influence of mixture equivalence ratio on the flame structure and resulting overpressure. The reported data revealed significant changes in flame structure as a result of the interaction between the propagating flame front and the transient recirculating flow formed behind the solid obstacle. Combustion images show that the flame accelerates and decelerates as it impinges on the obstacle wall boundaries. It is also found that the mixture concentrations have a significant influence on the nature of the flame/solid interactions and the resulting overpressure. The highest flame speed of 40 m/s was obtained with the unity fuel–air equivalence ratio. Burning of trapped mixture behind the solid obstruction was found to be highly correlated with the flame front length and the rate of pressure rise.     

Numerical Study of Ignition Process in Turbulent Shear-less Methane-air Mixing Layer

In this work, ignition process in a turbulent shear-less methane-air mixing layer is numerically investigated. A compressible large eddy simulation method with Smagorinsky sub-grid scale model is used to solve the flow field. Also, a thickened flame combustion model and DRM-19 reduced mechanism are used to compute species distribution and the heat release. Non-reacting mean and RMS axial velocity profiles and mean mixture fraction are validated against experimental data. Instantaneous mixture fraction contours show that the large bursts penetrate from the fuel stream into that of the oxidizer and vice versa and a random behaviour in the cross-stream direction. Flame kernel initiation, growth and propagation are analysed and compared with the experimental data. The ignition results show that the flame is not stable and blow-off occurs, but a more detailed investigation shows that local and short time flame stabilization exist during blow-off. During these local stabilization, heat release increased at the upstream edge of the flame. Most_upstream flame edge scalar analysis shows that the methane mass fraction has a dominant role in the local flame stabilization. OH, HO₂, CH₂O and heat release contours demonstration reveal that HO₂ and CH₂O mass fraction as well as the heat release reach a maximum on the border of the flame, but the maximum OH concentration is located in the middle of flame kernel.     

用序列脉冲激光等离子体示踪方法测量非定常流的速度——时间变化

本文在 Chen 和 G.Klingenberg 提出的激光电离原理的基础上,发展了一种用序列脉冲激光形成一组等离子体示踪测量气流速度—时间曲线的新方法。在已完成的测量中,速度范围可达120m/s～2300m/s,相对误差为2.3%.本文对等离子体示踪特性进行了详细讨论.这种方法特别适合于高超音速非定常流场,已研制成完整的测量系统 LVG-1。     

点火位置对氢气-空气预混气体泄爆过程的影响

利用高速纹影和压力测试系统对不同点火位置及不同破膜压力条件下氢气-空气预混气的泄爆特性进行研究。研究结果表明:在所有情况下,中心点火时火焰传播速率和面积最大,产生了最大的内部压力峰值,尾端点火时火焰传播速率和面积次之,产生的内部压力峰值也次之;前端点火时火焰传播速率和面积均最小,产生了最小的内部压力峰值。前端点火时,容器内部压力出现了3个明显的压力峰值,中心和尾端点火时,只能观察到第1个和第3个压力峰值。并且,随着破膜压力的增加,中心和尾端点火时,火焰面积均增大,产生的内部压力峰值均增大。在前端点火的条件下出现了声学振荡的现象,对内部压力产生了显著的影响。     

点火位置对泄爆空间甲烷-空气爆炸荷载的影响

在12 m3密闭空间内开展了甲烷-空气预混气体（甲烷体积分数为9.5%）的爆炸试验研究,改变点火位置,分析有泄爆口时点火位置对甲烷-空气爆炸超压和火焰形态的影响。结果表明:点火位置对Δp₁的升压速度基本没有影响,Δp₂的峰值随着点火位置远离泄爆口而增大,Δp₄的峰值与点火位置的关系为:中心点火最大,尾部点火次之,前端点火最小。在所有位置,Δp₁随着泄爆阈值的增大而增大,且增量相同;Δp₂在前端点火和中心点火时随泄爆阈值的增加而消失,仅在尾部点火时出现;Δp₄只有在中心点火时随泄爆阈值的增加而增加。外部火焰发展过程可以分为火球阶段和火焰喷射阶段,尾部点火和中心点火的火球大小及火焰喷射长度远大于前端点火。     

Laser-based investigations in gas turbine model combustors

Dynamic processes in gas turbine (GT) combustors play a key role in flame stabilization and extinction, combustion instabilities and pollutant formation, and present a challenge for experimental as well as numerical investigations. These phenomena were investigated in two gas turbine model combustors for premixed and partially premixed CH₄/air swirl flames at atmospheric pressure. Optical access through large quartz windows enabled the application of laser Raman scattering, planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) of OH, particle image velocimetry (PIV) at repetition rates up to 10 kHz and the simultaneous application of OH PLIF and PIV at a repetition rate of 5 kHz. Effects of unmixedness and reaction progress in lean premixed GT flames were revealed and quantified by Raman scattering. In a thermo-acoustically unstable flame, the cyclic variation in mixture fraction and its role for the feedback mechanism of the instability are addressed. In a partially premixed oscillating swirl flame, the cyclic variations of the heat release and the flow field were characterized by chemiluminescence imaging and PIV, respectively. Using phase-correlated Raman scattering measurements, significant phase-dependent variations of the mixture fraction and fuel distributions were revealed. The flame structures and the shape of the reaction zones were visualized by planar imaging of OH distribution. The simultaneous OH PLIF/PIV high-speed measurements revealed the time history of the flow field–flame interaction and demonstrated the development of a local flame extinction event. Further, the influence of a precessing vortex core on the flame topology and its dynamics is discussed.