A study of the perforation of stiffened plates by rigid projectiles

In the present paper, a four-stage perforation model that accurately predicts the residual velocity is developed by adopting an energy method. The four stages are plug formation, dishing formation, petal formation and projectile exit. In addition, some important experimental results are presented and analyzed to validate the present perforation model. In the experiments, high speed camera system is used to record the perforation process. Observations on target damage and measurements of initial velocities and residual velocities with the aid of the system are presented. Numerical simulations are carried out for projectiles against single and layered plates adopted in the experiments. The perforation process is studied and the deformation and failure modes are obtained. The predictions of numerical simulations and analytical model are found in reasonably good agreement with those of experiments, and can be used to predict the ballistic limit and residual velocity of stiffened plates perforated by rigid projectiles.     

A study of the perforation of stiffened plates by rigid projectiles

In the present paper, a four-stage perforation model that accurately predicts the residual velocity is developed by adopting an energy method. The four stages are plug formation, dishing formation, petal formation and projectile exit. In addition, some important experimental results are presented and analyzed to validate the present perforation model. In the experiments, high speed camera system is used to record the perforation process. Observations on target damage and measurements of initial velocities and residual velocities with the aid of the system are presented. Numerical simulations are carried out for projectiles against single and layered plates adopted in the experiments. The perforation process is studied and the deformation and failure modes are obtained. The predictions of numerical simulations and analytical model are found in reasonably good agreement with those of experiments, and can be used to predict the ballistic limit and residual velocity of stiffened plates perforated by rigid projectiles. The project supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (90305018) The English text was polished by Yunming Chen     

带前舱物的钝头弹对金属靶的正穿甲分析

进一步发展了考虑结构响应的剪切冲塞模型,计及前舱物的作用,对带前舱物的钝头弹穿甲金属靶的工程问题进行了刚塑性分析,用于分析终点弹道极限和剩余速度。除剪切破坏之外,模型还考虑了靶板弯曲、膜力拉伸和前舱物撞击引起的靶板预结构响应等。给出了简洁的终点弹道性能公式,与相关实验结果较吻合。     

Experimental Study on the Perforation Process of 5754-H111 and 6082-T6 Aluminium Plates Subjected to Normal Impact by Conical,Hemispherical and Blunt Projectiles

This paper presents an experimental investigation on the perforation behaviour of 5754-H111 and 6082-T6 aluminium alloys. The mechanical response of these materials has been characterized in compression with strain rates in the range of $10^{-3}~s^{-1} < \dot {\varepsilon } < 5 \cdot 10^{3}~s^{-1}$ . Moreover, penetration tests have been conducted on 5754-H111 and 6082-T6 plates of $4~mm$ thickness using conical, hemispherical and blunt projectiles. The perforation experiments covered impact velocities in the range of $50~m/s < V_{0} < 200~m/s$ . The initial and residual velocities of the projectile were measured and the ballistic limit velocity obtained for the two aluminium alloys for the different nose shapes. Failure mode and post-mortem deflection of the plates have been examined and the perforation mechanisms associated to each projectile/target configuration investigated. It has been shown that the energy absorption capacity of the impacted plates is the result of the collective role played by target material behaviour, projectile nose shape and impact velocity in the penetration mechanisms.     

Perforation of 7075-T651 Aluminum Armor Plates with 7.62 mm APM2 Bullets

We conducted an experimental and analytical study to better understand the mechanisms and dominant parameters for 7.62 mm APM2 bullets that perforate 7075-T651 aluminum armor plates. The 7.62-mm-diameter, 10.7 g, APM2 bullet consists of a brass jacket, lead filler, and a 5.25 g, ogive-nose, hard steel core. The brass and lead were stripped from the APM2 bullets by the targets, so we conducted ballistic experiments with both the APM2 bullets and only the hard steel cores. These projectiles were fired from a rifle to striking velocities between 600 and 1,100 m/s. Targets were 20 and 40-mm-thick, where the 40-mm-thick targets were made up of layered 20-mm-thick plates in contact with each other. The measured ballistic-limit velocities for the APM2 bullets were 1% and 8% smaller than that for the hard steel cores for the 20 and 40-mm-thick targets, respectively. Thus, the brass jacket and lead filler had a relatively small effect on the perforation process. Predictions from a cylindrical cavity-expansion model for the hard steel core projectiles are shown to be in good agreement with measured ballistic-limit and residual velocity data. The results of this study complement our previous paper with 5083-H116 aluminum target plates in that the ultimate tensile strength of 7075-T651 is about 1.8 times greater than that of 5083-H116. We also present a scaling law that shows a square root relationship between ballistic-limit velocity and plate thickness and material strength.     

An investigation of oblique perforation of metallic plates by projectiles

An experimental and analytical study was performed on the mechanics of oblique perforation of metallic plates by projectiles. The purpose was to determine the dependence of the velocity drop on the angle of impact for prescribed mechanical and physical properties of the projectile and the target plate. The ballistic experiments were carried out with 0.22-in.-caliber lead bullets on target plates of commercially pure aluminum and an aluminum alloy which ranged from 2.0 to 6.0 mm in thickness. Transient measurements were taken which included high-speed photographs of the perforation process. The theoretical model that had been developed previously by the authors for the case of normal perforation was modified to include the effects of the angle of impact. The experimental observations for the present test conditions indicate that the main modification to the analysis is the use of the total projectile path as the effective target-plate thickness. Reasonably good agreement between the experimental and theoretical results was obtained.     

Perforation of 5083-H116 Aluminum Armor Plates with Ogive-Nose Rods and 7.62 mm APM2 Bullets

We conducted an experimental and analytical study to understand the mechanisms and dominant parameters for ogive-nose rods and 7.62 mm APM2 bullets that perforate 5083-H116 aluminum armor plates. The 20-mm-diameter, 95-mm-long, ogive-nose, 197 g, hard steel rods were launched with a gas gun to striking velocities between 230–370 m/s. The 7.62-mm-diameter, 10.7 g, APM2 bullet consists of a brass jacket, lead filler, and a 5.25 g, ogive-nose, hard steel core. The brass and lead were stripped from the APM2 bullets by the targets, so we conducted ballistic experiments with both the APM2 bullets and only the hard steel cores. These projectiles were fired from a rifle to striking velocities between 480–950 m/s. Targets were 20, 40, and 60-mm-thick, where the 40 and 60-mm-thick targets were made up of layered 20-mm-thick plates in contact with each other. The measured ballistic-limit velocities for the APM2 bullets were 4, 6, and 12% smaller than that for the hard steel cores for the 20, 40, and 60-mm-thick targets, respectively. Thus, the brass jacket and lead filler had a relatively small effect on the perforation process. In addition, we conducted large strain, compression tests on the 5083-H116 aluminum plate material for input to perforation equations derived from a cavity-expansion model for the ogive-nose rods and steel core projectiles. Predictions for the rod and hard steel core projectiles are shown to be in good agreement with measured ballistic-limit and residual velocity data. These experimental results and perforation equations display the dominant problem parameters.     

93W杆式弹超高速撞击多层Q345钢靶毁伤及微观分析

为了解杆式弹超高速撞击多层薄钢靶的破坏过程及毁伤机理,开展了克级93W杆式弹正撞击多层Q345钢靶实验及数值模拟研究,通过扫描电子显微镜（scanning electron microscope,SEM）及金相显微镜,分析了超高速撞击实验后靶板材料的微观组织及成分。结果表明,超高速撞击作用下,靶板呈现出“翻唇”穿孔变形、花瓣状塑性变形、撕裂、撞击成坑及鼓包等破坏模式。靶板前3层毁伤以超高速穿孔为主,孔洞数目多但面积小,后几层靶板毁伤孔洞数目少且孔径呈先增大后减小趋势。微观分析表明靶材在强冲击压力下发生晶粒碎化、熔化及再结晶,撞击过程中会形成微孔聚集与微裂纹,可见靶板失效主要是熔融混合物冷却过程中产生的热应力与切应力下的剪切撕裂综合作用的结果。     

Deformation and Failure Modes of Soft Steel Projectiles Impacting Harder Steel Targets at Increasing Velocity

The present paper describes an experimental and numerical study concerning the impact of blunt steel projectiles against harder steel plates, at impact velocities between 200 and 800 m/s. In contrast with previously published observations, three modes of deformation and failure of the soft steel projectiles were observed in the present study. These included: Taylor cylinder mushrooming, sunflower-like petalling and plugging perforation. Individual velocity ranges and the transitions between the deformation/failure modes are identified by both experiments and numerical simulations. Complex material failure mechanisms of projectile and target play conflicting roles in the various penetration stages. Johnson–Cook models of strength and accumulative damage failure are employed in 3D numerical simulation to describe material behavior of both projectile and target. Computational evolutions of each scenario are offered in detail to understand the deformation and failure of projectile and target plate.     

On the deep penetration and plate perforation by rigid projectiles

We present results of a large number of 2D numerical simulations in which we investigated various aspects in the deep penetration of rigid short projectiles into semi-infinite targets, as well as their perforation through thin metallic plates. In particular, we analyze the effect of the entrance phase on the penetration characteristics of short ogive and spherical nosed projectiles. The second issue which we investigate here concerns the perforation of metallic plates by sharp nosed projectiles. Our simulation results show that a simple model, which is based on energy conservation, accounts for the residual velocities when the target is penetrated by the ductile hole enlargement process. In addition, we define a new concept, the effective resisting stress which the plate exerts on the projectile during perforation. We show that it has some valuable insights for the process of perforation and we perform a parametric study to understand its dependence on various parameters. This effective stress, which determines the ballistic limit velocity of the projectile, depends on the strength of the plate, as well as on its thickness, as we show here.     

Modeling of perforation of plates and multi-layered metallic targets

The perforation of monolithic and multi-layered thin metallic plates by flat-ended cylindrical penetrator is considered. The most relevant analytical penetration models with their most important assumptions, basic process mechanisms, and key analytical relations for plugging mode of monolithic plates penetration are reviewed. Comparative analysis of computational results and our experimental data show significant compatibility of process basic parameters and also indicates certain limitations of the analytical models. It has been concluded that phenomenological model with deformable penetrator represents the best analytical approximation of penetration process. By modification of this model, the improved penetration model is created, whose results better correspond with experimental data. The improved model is applied to the analysis of perforation of multi-layered targets with spaced layers. Theoretical results for the case of double-layer target are especially analyzed. These results enable the formulation of certain conclusions of considerable practical importance.     

DYNAMICAL CALCULATION AND ANALYSIS ON PENETRATION OF TARGET PLATES BY TRUNCATED CONICAL PROJECTILES

In this paper, dynamical calculation and analysis are made on penetration of thinplates by truncated conical projectiles in terms of the needs of fuze designing. The impactvelocity ranges from 200m/s ts to 1000m/s (including both low and high velocities). Thetarget plates include the thin aluminium plate (metal) and the plywood (non-metal).Because a strength effect of target plates is considered in the establishment ofdynamical models, we solved the problem that some previous models were not suitable tolowvelocity impact.for example, M. Zaid and B. Paul＇s models. By comparison ofinertial effect with strength effect, we theoretically proved Zaid and Paul＇s experimentalconclusion."Only when the impact velocity is more that 500m/s can the strength effect beneglected. Otherwise this effect can not be neglected".     

On the ballistic resistance of double-layered steel plates: An experimental and numerical investigation

Civil and military ballistic protection systems often consist of thin, high-strength steel plates. Such plates may either be monolithic or layered with or without spacing. The idea of using layered plates instead of a monolithic one in order to increase the ballistic perforation resistance is not new, and the effect of using targets made up of several thinner plates has been investigated in the literature for a long time. However, results by various authors are contradicting and detailed experimental and numerical work is still required.In the present study, the ballistic perforation resistance of double-layered steel plates impacted by blunt and ogival projectiles was investigated both experimentally and numerically. In the tests, 12 mm thick (monolithic or layered) targets of Weldox 700 E were impacted using a gas-gun at sub-ordnance velocity, and the ballistic limit velocity of the different target combinations was obtained. In general, good agreement was obtained between the numerical simulations and the experimental results. It was found that in the case of blunt projectiles a large gain in the ballistic limit is offered by double-layered systems. These advantages seem to disappear when ogival projectiles are used. However, the main conclusion from both the experimental and numerical studies is that the overall protection level, i.e. the minimum ballistic limit velocity obtained independently of projectile nose shape, seems to increase significantly by double-layering the target.     

高速3D-DIC测试技术在装甲钢贯穿试验中的应用

数字图像相关（digital image correlation, DIC）技术作为一种非接触、非干涉的全场无损光学量测技术,可获取材料表面的动态变形信息和破坏过程。为了评估装甲钢的抗弹性能并探索高速三维数字图像相关（3D-DIC）技术在钢板贯穿试验测试中的应用,基于氢氧爆轰驱动弹道枪开展了7发15 mm口径可变形弹体以不同速度（255～568 m/s）冲击不同厚度（5、8和10 mm）高强高硬装甲钢板的试验,并结合帧率为144 000 s?1的高速3D-DIC测试技术获取了靶板的离面位移和应变时程。随后,基于前期标定并验证的装甲钢本构模型参数,对上述试验进行了数值模拟。通过对比弹体残余速度和长度验证了有限元分析方法的可靠性。进一步通过对比试验与数值模拟得到的靶背离面位移时程曲线和不同时刻靶背的应变云图,验证了高速3D-DIC测试结果的准确性。最后,对比分析了靶板最大离面位移与弹体冲击速度和装甲钢板厚度的关系。高速3D-DIC测试技术的应用可为相关试验测试提供参考,靶板最大离面位移分析结果可为屏障类防护结构的分析验证和优化设计提供试验依据。     

Oblique Perforation of Thick Metallic Plates by Rigid Projectiles

Oblique perforation of thick metallic plates by rigid projectiles with various nose shapes is studied in this paper. Two perforation mechanisms, i.e., the hole enlargement for a sharp projectile nose and the plugging formation for a blunt projectile nose, are considered in the proposed analytical model. It is shown that the perforation of a thick plate is dominated by several non-dimensional numbers, i.e., the impact function, the geometry function of projectile, the non-dimensional thickness of target and the impact obliquity. Explicit formulae are obtained to predict the ballistic limit, residual velocity and directional change for the oblique perforation of thick metallic plates. The proposed model is able to predict the critical condition for the occurrence of ricochet. The proposed model is validated by comparing the predictions with other existing models and independent experimental data.The English text was polished by Keren Wang     

细长尖头刚性弹对金属靶板的斜侵彻/穿甲分析

给出细长尖头刚性弹（如尖卵、尖锥形）斜侵彻/穿甲金属靶的一个分析模型。在细长尖头弹对中厚度金属靶的斜穿甲中,韧性孔洞扩张为主要的穿甲机理;着靶初期,发生方向角的改变。研究表明,金属靶的斜穿甲仅由4个量纲一参数控制,即冲击函数I、弹体几何函数N、量纲一靶厚和撞击斜角。分析得到显式的侵彻深度、终点弹道极限、剩余速度和撞击方向改变角表达式。该模型可预期跳飞发生的临界条件。理论预期与实验结果吻合较好。     

Effects of joining techniques on impact perforation resistance of assembled composite plates

A previous study on impact response of composite laminates concluded that impact perforation was the most important damage stage in composite laminates subjected to impact loading, since impact characteristics (peak force, contact duration and absorbed energy) and mechanical properties degradation of composite laminates reached critical points once perforation took place. It was also found that thickness had a greater influence on impact perforation resistance than did in-plane dimensions. However, as the composite laminates became very thick, the manufacturing cost for obtaining high-quality composite laminates increased. In an effort to meet design requirements and reduce manufacturing costs, assembled composite plates, which were organized by assembling multiple thin composite laminates, were considered as alternatives for thick single-laminate composite plates. Various joining techniques including mechanical riveting, adhesive bonding and stitch joining, and their combinations, were used in assembling two- and three-laminate plates. Experimental results revealed that adhesive bonding outperformed other joining techniques. Although good bonding resulted in higher joining (bending) stiffness and subsequently higher perforation thresholds, increasing the laminate thickness or the number of laminates was found to be more efficient in raising perforation threshold than in improving the joining stiffness. The assembled three-laminate plates were found to have higher perforation thresholds than their thick single-laminate counterpart.     

水中爆炸加载金属板变形的实验研究

本文给出了研究抛体大变形的光学实验测试方法,用该方法测定了水中爆炸作用下的金属板的变形过程,得到了金属板上任意点随时间变化的位移曲线和速度曲线以及金属板变形过程的真实位移场。该方法比常用的测量抛体运动速度的电测探针法前进了一步。     

Aerodynamic characteristics of permeable disks at subsonic free-stream flow velocities

A large number of investigations have been carried out to study the aerodynamic characteristics of grids and permeable plates completely covering a pipe section [1]. The theoretical bases of the external aerodynamics of permeable bodies are established in [2], where the concept of a uniformly permeable surface is introduced and the problem of flow past a permeable plate at a small angle of attack is solved. Papers [3, 4] are devoted to the solution of problems of a jet flow of ideal incompressible fluid past a permeable wedge and a plate. The flow past a wedge with a high degree of permeability at low subsonic velocities was investigated theoretically and experimentally in [5]. Papers [6, 7] are devoted to the experimental investigation of the aerodynamic characteristics of plates and disks at low subsonic velocities. The results of the experimental investigations of permeable bodies are given in [8]. In the present paper the aerodynamic characteristics of permeable disks positioned perpendicular to the direction of the oncoming flow are investigated experimentally in a wide range of variation of the perforation parameters and the subsonic free-stream flow velocities.Translated from Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Mekhanika Zhidkosti i Gaza, No. 4, pp. 123–128, July–August, 1986.     

Perforation of 6082-T651 Aluminum Plates with 7.62 mm APM2 Bullets at Normal and Oblique Impacts

We conducted an experimental study to understand the mechanisms and dominant parameters for 7.62 mm APM2 bullets that perforate 6082-T651 aluminum armor plates at oblique impacts. The 7.62-mm-diameter, 10.7 g, APM2 bullet consists of a brass jacket, lead filler, and a 5.25 g, ogive-nose, hard steel core. The brass and lead were stripped from the APM2 bullets by the targets, so we conducted ballistic experiments with both the APM2 bullets and only the hard steel cores. These projectiles were fired from a rifle to striking velocities between 400 and 1,000 m/s into 20-mm-thick plates at normal impact (β?=?0^o) and at oblique angles of β?=?15^o, 30^o, and 45^o. Measured residual and ballistic-limit velocities for the full bullet and the hard core were within a few percent for normal impact and all oblique angles. Thus, we showed that the perforation process was dominated by the hard steel core of the bullet. In addition, we conducted large strain, compression tests on the 6082-T651 plate material for input to perforation equations derived from a cavity-expansion model for the steel core projectiles. Model predictions were shown to be in good agreement with measured ballistic-limit and residual velocity measurements for β?=?0^o, 15^o, and 30^o. We also presented a scaling law for the bullet that showed the ballistic-limit velocities were proportional to the square root of the product of plate thickness and a material strength term.