A novel method to fabricate lithium-ion polymer batteries based on LiMn<Subscript>2</Subscript>O<Subscript>4</Subscript>/NG electrodes

A novel method to fabricate lithium-ion polymer batteries (LiPBs) has been developed. The LiPBs was fabricated without microporous polyolefin separators, taking spinel lithium manganese oxide (LiMn₂O₄) and natural graphite (NG) as the electrodes. The thicknesses of the cathodes and the anodes are 190 and 110 μm, respectively. The NG anode was coated with a microporous composite polymer film (20 μm thick) which composed of polymer and ultrafine particles. The coating process was effective and simple to be used in practical application, and ensured the composite polymer film to act as a good separator in the LiPB. The LiPBs assembled with the coated NG anodes and pristine LiMn₂O₄ cathodes presented better electrochemical performances than liquid lithium-ion battery counterparts, proving that the microporous composite polymer film can improve the performance of the coated NG anode. In this paper, the spinel LiMn₂O₄/(coated)NG-based LiPBs exhibited high rate capability, compliant temperature reliability, and significantly, excellent cycling performance under the elevated temperature (55°C).     

A novel Et<Subscript>4</Subscript>NBF<Subscript>4</Subscript> and LiPF<Subscript>6</Subscript> blend salts electrolyte for supercapacitor battery

Electrolytes of 1 M blend salts (LiPF₆ and tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate, Et₄NBF₄) have been investigated in supercapacitor battery system with composite LiMn₂O₄ and activated carbon (AC) cathode, and Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ anode. The results obtained with the blend salts electrolytes are compared with those obtained with cells build using standard 1 M LiPF₆ dissolved in ethylene carbonate + dimethyl carbonate + ethyl (methyl) carbonate (EC + DMC + EMC, 1:1:1 wt.%) as electrolyte. It is found that the blend salts electrolyte performs better on both electrochemical and galvanostatic cycling stability, especially cycled at 4 C rate. When the concentration of LiPF₆ is 0.2 M and Et₄NBF₄ is 0.8 M, the capacity retention of the battery is 96.23% at 4 C rate after 5,000 cycles, much higher than that of the battery with standard 1 M LiPF₆ electrolyte, which is only 62.35%. These results demonstrate that the blend salts electrolyte can improve the galvanostatic cycling stability of the supercapacity battery. Electrolyte of 0.2 M LiPF₆ + 0.8 M Et₄NBF₄ in EC + DMC + EMC (1:1:1 wt.%) is a promising electrolyte for (LiMn₂O₄ + AC)/Li₄Ti₅O₁₂.     

Electochemical characteristics of LiMn<Subscript>2</Subscript>O<Subscript>4</Subscript>/Li<Subscript>4</Subscript>Ti<Subscript>5</Subscript>O<Subscript>12</Subscript> battery with conducting polymeric binder

Lithium-ion battery based on LiMn₂O₄/Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ materials was assembled for the first time. The cathode and anode of this battery are prepared with the aqueous combined binder poly-3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene: polystyrene sulfonate/carboxymethylcellulose (without polyvinylidene fluoride). The capacity of the LiMn₂O₄/Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ battery was found to be 75 mA h g^–1 at 0.1 C and 55 mA h g^–1 at 1 C. A 95% capacity was retained after 100 charge-discharge cycles. The batteries demonstrated a high Coulombic efficiency close to 100%. Scanning electron microscopy demonstrated that using the conducting binder poly-3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene: polystyrene sulfonate/carboxymethylcellulose provides formation of dense compact layers of electrode materials with good adhesion to the substrate. The electrode structure remains maintained after 100 charge-discharge cycles.     

Facile synthesis of LiMn<Subscript>2</Subscript>O<Subscript>4</Subscript> microsheets with porous micro-nanostructure as high-rate cathode materials for Li-ion batteries

Porous LiMn₂O₄ microsheets with micro-nanostructure have been successfully prepared through a simple carbon gel-combustion process with a microporous membrane as hard template. The crystal structure, morphology, chemical composition, and surface analysis of the as-obtained LiMn₂O₄ microsheets are characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscope (XPS). It can be found that the as-prepared LiMn₂O₄ sample presents the two-dimensional (2-D) sheet structure with porous structure comprised with nano-scaled particles. As cathode materials for lithium-ion batteries, the obtained LiMn₂O₄ microsheets show superior rate capacities and cycling performance at various charge/discharge rates. The LiMn₂O₄ microsheets exhibit a higher charge and discharge capacity of 137.0 and 134.7 mAh g^?1 in the first cycle at 0.5 C, and it remains 127.6 mAh g^?1 after 50 cycles, which accounts for 94.7% discharge capacity retention. Even at 10 C rate, the electrode also delivers the discharge capacity of 91.0 mAh g^?1 after 300 cycles (93.5% capacity retention). The superior electrochemical properties of the LiMn₂O₄ microsheets could be attributed to the unique microsheets with porous micro-nanostructure, more active sites of the Li-ions insertion/deinsertion for the higher contact area between the LiMn₂O₄ nano-scaled particles and the electrolyte, and better kinetic properties, suggesting the applications of the sample in high-power lithium-ion batteries.     

LiMn<Subscript>2</Subscript>O<Subscript>4</Subscript> and LiCoO<Subscript>2</Subscript> composite cathode materials obtained by mechanical activation

New composite cathode materials xLiMn₂O₄/(1 ? x) LiCoO₂(x = 0.7, 0.6, 0.5 и 0.4) were obtained by mechanical activation. According to scanning electron microscopy data, the process was accompanied by pronounced dispersion and fine mixing of the initial components. In the course of the preparation and electrochemical cycling of the composites, LiMn₂O₄ and LiCoO₂ partially reacted, leading to the replacement of manganese with cobalt in the structure of spinel, which was detected by powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), IR and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and cyclic chronopotentiometry. The specific discharge capacity of composites was ～100 mAh/g.     

Synthesis of high-energy-density LiMn<Subscript>2</Subscript>O<Subscript>4</Subscript> cathode through surficial Nb doping for lithium-ion batteries

LiMn₂O₄ is one of the most promising cathode materials due to its high abundance and low cost. However, the practical application of LiMn₂O₄ is greatly limited owing to its low volumetric energy density. Therefore, increasing its energy density is an urgent problem to be resolved. Herein, using the simple and mass production preferred solid-state reaction, surficial Nb-doped LiMn₂O₄ composed of the truncated octahedral or spherical-like primary particles are successfully synthesized. Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) characterizations confirm that most of Nb⁵⁺ enrich in the surficial layer of the particles to form a LiMn_2-xNb_xO₄ phase. This kind of doping can increase the specific discharge capacity of LiMn₂O₄ materials. Contrast with the pristine LiMn₂O₄, the discharge capacity of LiMn_1.99Nb_0.01O₄-based 18650R-type battery increases from 1497 to 1705 mAh with the volumetric energy density increasing by ~?13.9%, benefiting from the joint increments of the specific discharge capacity from 119.5 to 123.7 mAh g^?1 and the compacted density from 2.81 to 3.10 g cm^?3. Furthermore, the capacity retention after 500 cycles at 1 C (1500 mA) is also improved by 17.1%.

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A new tavorite LiTiPO<Subscript>4</Subscript>F electrode material for aqueous rechargeable lithium ion battery

Herein, we demonstrate a safe, inexpensive, and stable cycle-life aqueous rechargeable Li-ion battery system using tavorite LiTiPO₄F as anode and Li[Li_0.2Co_0.3Mn_0.5]O₂ as cathode in aqueous electrolyte using 2 M Li₂SO₄. These materials have been synthesized via a simple and an efficient method called RAPET (reaction under autogenic pressure at elevated temperature) method, and for the first time, we have evaluated the electrochemical properties of LiTiPO₄F in aqueous electrolyte. Structural and morphological features have been characterized using X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy techniques, and the electrochemical studies have been investigated by using cyclic voltammetry, galvanostatic charge/discharge studies, electrochemical impedance spectroscopic technique, potentiostatic intermittent titration techniques, and galvanostatic intermittent titration techniques. In galvanostatic charge/discharge studies, the capacity, cycle life, and columbic efficiency of LiTiPO₄F have been tested in combination with Li [Li_0.2Co_0.3Mn_0.5]O₂ cathode. In particular, LiTiPO₄F shows capacity of 82 mA h g^?1, the capacity retention was maintained 90 % even after the 45th cycle.     

Comparison of different soft chemical routes synthesis of submicro-LiMn<Subscript>2</Subscript>O<Subscript>4</Subscript> and their influence on its electrochemical properties

A comparative study of submicro-crystalline spinel LiMn₂O₄ powders prepared by two different soft chemical routes such as hydrothermal and sol–gel methods is made. The dependence of the physicochemical properties of the spinel LiMn₂O₄ powder has been extensively investigated by using X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscope, cyclic voltammogram, charge–discharge test, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The results show that the electrochemical performances of spinel LiMn₂O₄ depend strongly upon the synthesis method. The LiMn₂O₄ powder prepared by hydrothermal route has higher specific capacity and better cycling performance than the one synthesized from sol–gel method. The former has the max discharge capacity of 114.36 and 99.78 mAh g⁻¹ at the 100th cycle, while the latter has the max discharge capacity of 98.67 and 60.25 mAh g⁻¹ at the 100th cycle. The selected equivalent circuit can fit well the EIS results of synthesized LiMn₂O₄. For spinel LiMn₂O₄ from sol–gel method and hydrothermal route in the first charge process R _SEI remain almost invariable, R _e and R _ct first decreasing and then increasing with the increase of polarization potential.     

The effect of nanolayer AlF<Subscript>3</Subscript> coating on LiMn<Subscript>2</Subscript>O<Subscript>4</Subscript> cycle life in high temperature for lithium secondary batteries

The surface of the spinel LiMn₂O₄ was coated with AlF₃ by a chemical process to improve its electrochemical performance at high temperatures. The morphology and structure of the original and AlF₃-coated LiMn₂O₄ samples were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscope (TEM). All the samples exhibited a pure cubic spinel structure without any impurities in the XRD patterns. It was found that the surfaces of the original LiMn₂O₄ samples were covered with a nanolayer AlF₃ after the treatment. The charge/discharge of the materials were carried at 220 mA/g in the range of 3.0 and 4.4 V at 55°C. While the original LiMn₂O₄ showed 17.8% capacity loss in 50 cycles at 55°C, the AlF₃-coated LiMn₂O₄ (118.1 mA h/g) showed only 3.4% loss of the initial capacity (122.3 mA h/g) at 55°C. It is obvious that the improvement in cycling performance of the coated-LiMn₂O₄ electrode at 55°C is attributed to the presence of AlF₃ on the surface of LiMn₂O₄. Published in Russian in Elektrokhimiya, 2009, Vol. 45, No. 7, pp. 817–819. The article is published in the original     

Electrochemical performance of rare-earth doped LiMn<Subscript>2</Subscript>O<Subscript>4</Subscript> spinel cathode materials for Li-ion rechargeable battery

Spinel powders of LiMn_2−x RE _x O₄ (RE = La, Ce, Nd, Sm; 0 ≤ x ≤ 0.1) have been synthesized by solid-phase reaction. The structure and electrochemical properties of these electrode materials were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), cyclic voltammetry (CV), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and charge–discharge experiment. The part substitution of rare-earth element RE for Mn in LiMn₂O₄ decreases the lattice parameter, resulting in the improvement of structural stability, and decreases the charge transfer resistance during the electrochemical process of LiMn₂O₄. As a result, the cycle ability, 55 °C high-temperature and high-rate performances of LiMn_2−x RE _x O₄ electrode materials are significantly improved with increasing RE addition, compared to the pristine LiMn₂O₄.     

Influence of manganese ions dissolved from LiMn<Subscript>2</Subscript>O<Subscript>4</Subscript> cathode on the degradation of Li<Subscript>4</Subscript>Ti<Subscript>5</Subscript>O<Subscript>12</Subscript>-based lithium-ion batteries

A systematic investigation is conducted to evaluate the influence of dissolved manganese ions from LiMn₂O₄ cathode on the degradation of Li₄Ti₅O₁₂-based lithium-ion batteries. Worse capacity fading is found in Li₄Ti₅O₁₂-based full cells with increasing manganese ion addition. The interfacial film covered on Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ anode is affected by the manganese ion contamination during cycling, which becomes thicker but more non-uniform, and is composed by less ratio of compact components and more ratio of loose components compared with that free of contamination. Such flawed passivation film cannot restrain the further penetration of electrolyte and inhibit the contact between electrolyte and Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ anodes efficiently, thus triggering more interfacial reactions and that should be the reason for the more severe capacity degradation. Accordingly, we suggest that in addition to optimizing the chemistry and microstructure of Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ electrode, more attention should also be paid to minimizing the destructive effect imposed on the passivation film of Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ electrode by the transition metal ion contaminations.     

Saqima-like Co<Subscript>3</Subscript>O<Subscript>4</Subscript>/CNTs secondary microstructures with ultrahigh initial Coulombic efficiency as an anode for lithium ion batteries

In this work, Co₃O₄/CNTs composite with Saqima-like secondary microstructure has been synthesized by heat treatment of CoC₂O₄/CNTs precursors being obtained through ultrasonication-assisted precipitation method. Through SEM, in the composites, the microstructures are composed of tightly connected nanoparticles (30–50 nm), and abundant spaces exist among nanoparticles, which can relieve the strain produced by volume effect to ensure the stability of integral structure during cycles; CNTs are dispersed in microstructures and bridge between microstructures, which can form a long-range conductive network in the composite. The electrochemical test indicates that the composite shows ultrahigh initial coulombic efficiency (ICE) of 85%, as well as excellent rate performance and cyclic stability. The high ICE is mainly ascribed to the formation of a stable solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) film only on the outer surface of microstructures. This work offers an available and general way to improve the ICE of transitional metal oxide as an anode material for LIB.     

Towards high-performance cathode materials for lithium-ion batteries: Al<Subscript>2</Subscript>O<Subscript>3</Subscript>-coated LiNi<Subscript>0.8</Subscript>Co<Subscript>0.15</Subscript>Zn<Subscript>0.05</Subscript>O<Subscript>2</Subscript>

Zn-doped LiNi_0.8Co_0.2O₂ exhibits impressive electrochemical performance but suffers limited cycling stability due to the relative large size of irregular and bare particle which is prepared by conventional solid-state method usually requiring high calcination temperature and prolonged calcination time. Here, submicron LiNi_0.8Co_0.15Zn_0.05O₂ as cathode material for lithium-ion batteries is synthesized by a facile sol-gel method, which followed by coating Al₂O₃ layer of about 15 nm to enhance its electrochemistry performance. The as-prepared Al₂O₃-coated LiNi_0.8Co_0.15Zn_0.05O₂ cathode delivers a highly reversible capacity of 182 mA h g^?1 and 94% capacity retention after 100 cycles at a current rate of 0.5 C, which is much superior to that of bare LiNi_0.8Co_0.15Zn_0.05O₂ cathode. The enhanced electrochemistry performance can be attributed to the Al₂O₃-coated protective layer, which prevents the direct contact between the LiNi_0.8Co_0.15Zn_0.05O₂ and electrolyte. The escalating trend of Li-ion diffusion coefficient estimated form electrochemical impedance spectroscopic (EIS) also indicate the enhanced structural stability of Al₂O₃-coated LiNi_0.8Co_0.15Zn_0.05O₂, which rationally illuminates the protection mechanism of the Al₂O₃-coated layer.     

Kinetics of Li-ion transfer reaction at LiMn<Subscript>2</Subscript>O<Subscript>4</Subscript>, LiCoO<Subscript>2</Subscript>, and LiFePO<Subscript>4</Subscript> cathodes

Kinetics of LiFePO₄, LiMn₂O₄, and LiCoO₂ cathodes operating in 1 M LIPF₆ solution in a mixture of ethylene carbonate and dimethyl carbonate was deduced from impedance spectra taken at different temperatures. The most striking difference of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) curves is the impedance magnitude: tens of ohms in the case of LiFePO₄, hundreds of ohms for LiMn₂O₄, and thousands of ohms for LiCoO₂. Charge transfer resistances (R _ct) for lithiation/delitiation processes estimated from the deconvolution procedure were 6.0 Ω (LiFePO₄), 55.4 Ω (LiCoO₂), and 88.5 Ω (LiMn₂O₄), respectively. Exchange current density for all the three tested cathodes was found to be comparable (0.55–1·10^?2 mAcm^?2, T = 298 K). Corresponding activation energies for the charge transfer process, \( {E}_{ct}^{\#} \), differed considerably: 66.3, 48.9, and 17.0 kJmol^?1 for LiMn₂O₄, LiCoO₂, and LiFePO₄, respectively. Consequently, temperature variation may have a substantial influence on exchange current densities (j _o) in the case of LiMn₂O₄ and LiCoO₂ cathodes.     

Synthesis and electrochemical studies on LiV<Subscript>3</Subscript>O<Subscript>8</Subscript>

The compound, lithium trivanadate (LiV₃O₈), was synthesized by the polymer precursor method, using the polymer polyvinylpyrrolidone. The electrochemical performance of LiV₃O₈ was compared with LiV₃O₈ synthesized by the solid state reaction method. The prepared compounds were characterized by X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy techniques. The electrochemical performances were studied by cyclic voltammetry and galvanostatic cycling in the voltage range of 2.0 to 4.0 V at room temperature (25 °C). The compound prepared by the polymer precursor method was found to have a good cycling stability. A reversible capacity value of 203 mAh/g (2.18 mol of Li) and 170 mAh/g (1.83 mol of Li) was obtained at the end of the 70th cycle, at a current density of 30 and 120 mA/g, respectively.     

Li<Subscript>0.99</Subscript>Ti<Subscript>0.01</Subscript>FePO<Subscript>4</Subscript>/C composite as cathode material for lithium ion battery

Three kinds of LiFePO₄ materials, mixed with carbon (as LiFePO₄/C), doped with Ti (as Li_0.99Ti_0.01FePO₄), and treated both ways (as Li_0.99Ti_0.01FePO₄/C composite), were synthesized via ball milling by solid-state reaction method. The crystal structure and electrochemical behavior of the materials were investigated using X-ray diffraction, SEM, TEM, cyclic voltammetry, and charge/discharge cycle measurements. It was found that the electrochemical behavior of LiFePO₄ could be increased by carbon coating and Ti-doping methods. Among the materials, Li_0.99Ti_0.01FePO₄/C composite presents the best electrochemical behavior, with an initial discharge capacity of 154.5 mAh/g at a discharge rate of 0.2 C, and long charge/discharge cycle life. After 120 cycles, its capacity remains at 92% of the initial capacity. The Li_0.99Ti_0.01FePO₄/C composite developed here can be used as the cathode material for lithium ion batteries.     

Electrospun Li<Subscript>4</Subscript>Ti<Subscript>5</Subscript>O<Subscript>12</Subscript>/Li<Subscript>2</Subscript>TiO<Subscript>3</Subscript> composite nanofibers for enhanced high-rate lithium ion batteries

Li₄Ti₅O₁₂/Li₂TiO₃ composite nanofibers with the mean diameter of ca. 60 nm have been synthesized via facile electrospinning. When the molar ratio of Li to Ti is 4.8:5, the Li₄Ti₅O₁₂/Li₂TiO₃ composite nanofibers exhibit initial discharge capacity of 216.07 mAh g^?1 at 0.1 C, rate capability of 151 mAh g^?1 after being cycled at 20 C, and cycling stability of 122.93 mAh g^?1 after 1000 cycles at 20 C. Compared with pure Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ nanofibers and Li₂TiO₃ nanofibers, Li₄Ti₅O₁₂/Li₂TiO₃ composite nanofibers show better performance when used as anode materials for lithium ion batteries. The enhanced electrochemical performances are explained by the incorporation of appropriate Li₂TiO₃ which could strengthen the structure stability of the hosted materials and has fast Li⁺-conductor characteristics, and the nanostructure of nanofibers which could offer high specific area between the active materials and electrolyte and shorten diffusion paths for ionic transport and electronic conduction. Our new findings provide an effective synthetic way to produce high-performance Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ anodes for lithium rechargeable batteries.     

Rational design of double-confined Mn<Subscript>2</Subscript>O<Subscript>3</Subscript>/S@Al<Subscript>2</Subscript>O<Subscript>3</Subscript> nanocube cathodes for lithium-sulfur batteries

Due to the high specific capacities and environmental benignity, lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries have shown fascinating potential to replace the currently dominant Li-ion batteries to power portable electronics and electric vehicles. However, the shuttling effect caused by the dissolution of polysulfides seriously degrades their electrochemical performance. In this paper, Mn₂O₃ microcubes are fabricated to serve as the sulfur host, on top of which Al₂O₃ layers of 2 nm in thickness are deposited via atomic layer deposition (ALD) to form Mn₂O₃/S (MOS) @Al₂O₃ composite electrodes. The MOS@Al₂O₃ electrode delivers an excellent initial capacity of 1012.1 mAh g^?1 and a capacity retention of 78.6% after 200 cycles at 0.5 C, and its coulombic efficiency reaches nearly 99%, giving rise to much better performance than the neat MOS electrode. These findings demonstrate the double confinement effect of the composite electrode in that both the porous Mn₂O₃ structure and the atomic Al₂O₃ layer serve as the spacious host and the protection layer of sulfur active materials, respectively, for significantly improved electrochemical performance of the Li-S battery.     

The use of methylcellulose for the synthesis of Li<Subscript>2</Subscript>FeSiO<Subscript>4</Subscript>/C composites

The key parameters related to cathode materials for commercial use are a high specific capacity, good cycling stability, capacity retention at high current rates, as well as the simplicity of the synthesis process. This study presents a facile synthesis of a composite cathode material, Li₂FeSiO₄ with carbon, under extreme conditions: rapid heating, short dwell at 750 °C and subsequent quenching. The water-soluble polymer methylcellulose was used both as an excellent dispersing agent and a carbon source that pyrolytically degrades to carbon, thereby enabling the homogeneous deployment of the precursor compounds and the control of the Li₂FeSiO₄ particle growth from the earliest stage of processing. X-ray powder diffraction reveals the formation of Li₂FeSiO₄ nanocrystallites with a monoclinic structure in the P2₁/n space group (#14). The composite’s electrochemical performance as a cathode material in Li-ion batteries was examined. The influence of the amount of methylcellulose on the microstructural, morphological, conductive, and electrochemical properties of the obtained powders has been discussed. It has been shown that the overall electrochemical performance is improved with an increase of carbon content, through both the decrease of the mean particle diameter and the increase of electrical conductivity.     

Layered LiNi<Subscript>0.80</Subscript>Co<Subscript>0.15</Subscript>Al<Subscript>0.05</Subscript>O<Subscript>2</Subscript> as cathode material for hybrid Li<Superscript>+</Superscript>/Na<Superscript>+</Superscript> batteries

LiNi_0.80Co_0.15Al_0.05O₂ (NCA) is explored to be applied in a hybrid Li⁺/Na⁺ battery for the first time. The cell is constructed with NCA as the positive electrode, sodium metal as the negative electrode, and 1 M NaClO₄ solution as the electrolyte. It is found that during electrochemical cycling both Na⁺ and Li⁺ ions are reversibly intercalated into/de-intercalated from NCA crystal lattice. The detailed electrochemical process is systematically investigated by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry, ex situ X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, cyclic voltammetry, galvanostatic cycling, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The NCA cathode can deliver initially a high capacity up to 174 mAh g^?1 and 95% coulombic efficiency under 0.1 C (1 C?=?120 mA g^?1) current rate between 1.5–4.1 V. It also shows excellent rate capability that reaches 92 mAh g^?1 at 10 C. Furthermore, this hybrid battery displays superior long-term cycle life with a capacity retention of 81% after 300 cycles in the voltage range from 2.0 to 4.0 V, offering a promising application in energy storage.