In-channel atom-transfer radical polymerization of thermoset polyester microfluidic devices for bioanalytical applications

A new technique for polymer microchannel surface modification, called in-channel atom-transfer radical polymerization, has been developed and applied in the surface derivatization of thermoset polyester (TPE) microdevices with poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG). X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, electroosmotic flow (EOF), and contact angle measurements indicate that PEG has been grafted on the TPE surface. Moreover, PEG-modified microchannels have much lower and more pH-stable EOF, more hydrophilic surfaces and reduced nonspecific protein adsorption. Capillary electrophoresis separation of amino acid and peptide mixtures in these PEG-modified TPE microchips had good reproducibility. Phosducin-like protein and phosphorylated phosducin-like protein were also separated to measure the phosphorylation efficiency. Our results indicate that PEG-grafted TPE microchips have broad potential application in biomolecular analysis.     

Routine serum protein analysis by capillary zone electrophoresis: Clinical evaluation

Summary To measure the five classical protein fractions in human serum several electrophoretic techniques are available. Besides separation on cellulose acetate membrane or agarose gel, capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) may be a useful analytical alternative in clinical routine. We have compared the Dionex CES I capillary electrophoresis system with that of the Olympus Fractoscan using specimens submitted for routine analysis. For clinical evaluation 102 samples from patients with various diseases have been analysed. Serum protein fractions were judged on separation performance, precision and the regression method ofBablok-Passing. Regression analysis revealed variable agreement between both methods with a slope ± intercept of 2.10–0.52 (α₁-fraction) and 1.0–0.20 (α₂-fraction) as worse and best, resectively; and the coefficient of variation of migration time: 5.9 %–6.8 % (between-run imprecision). Differences in the comparison of fractions are mainly caused by the improved resolution of CZE; e.g. one β-globulin peak on cellulose acetate is separated into two distinct protein fractions in CZE, including more detailed diagnostic information—as is also the case with γ-fraction. In some cases monoclonal gammopathy with low concentrations of immunglobulin clone can only be detected in CZE, whereas the cellulose acetate membrane (CAME) electropherogram is inconspicuous. The within-run precision (N=18) gave coefficients of variation of peak areas 1.3–5.9 % (CZE) and 1.0–3.8 % (cellulose acetate membrane). This is the first time that a complete clinical evaluation of CZE serum protein fraction analysis has been performed. CZE with its higher resolution and hence more detailed diagnostic information in some cases, showed good separation patterns, precision and correlation. Interchangeability of results showed that this CZE method is well suited for analysis of serum protein fractions in clinical routine. Presented at the 21^st ISC held in Stuttgart, Germany, 15^th–20^th September, 1996.     

Speciation of metal ions in proteins by combining PIXE and thin layer electrophoresis

Particle induced X-ray emission (PIXE) spectroscopy is a simple and convenient method of quantitative multielemental analysis with sensitivities in the μg/g range, that can be successfully used for trace analysis of metal ions in proteins or enzymes. However, due to its elemental character the technique alone is not a priori suitable for speciation. Keeping track of the metal ions of interest throughout a proper biochemical separation technique, on the other hand, could be a useful strategy for speciation. Different versions of thin layer electrophoresis (polyacrylamide gel, agarose or cellulose acetate electrophoresis) are very effective and sensitive methods to separate proteins or protein fragments. Due to the high absolute sensitivity of PIXE the metal ions concentrated in the narrow bands of an electropherogram can be in situ successfully detected. The present paper describes this unique combination of biochemical separation and ion beam analysis which significantly extends the information obtained from electrophoresis. Illustrative applications are given and the advantages and limitations of the method are discussed. Possible extensions of the technique are also outlined.     

Glycosaminoglycan blotting on nitrocellulose membranes treated with cetylpyridinium chloride after agarose-gel electrophoretic separation

We describe a method for blotting and immobilizing several nonsulfated and sulfated complex polysaccharides on membranes made hydrophilic and positively charged by a cationic detergent after their separation by conventional agarose gel electrophoresis. Nitrocellulose membranes were derivatized with the cationic detergent cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC) and mixtures of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) were capillary-blotted after their separation in agarose gel electrophoresis in barium acetate/1,2-diaminopropane. Single purified species of variously sulfated polysaccharides were transferred onto the derivatized membranes after electrophoresis with an efficiency of 100% and stained with alcian blue (irreversible staining) and toluidine blue (reversible staining) permitting about 0.1 nug threshold of detection. Nonsulfated polyanions, hyaluronic acid, a fructose-containing polysaccharide with a chondroitin backbone purified from Escherichia coli U1-41, and its defructosylated product, were also electrophoretically separated and transferred onto membranes. The limit of detection for desulfated GAGs was about 0.1-0.5 nug after irreversible or reversible staining. GAG extracts from bovine, lung and aorta, and human aorta and urine were separated by agarose gel electrophoresis and blotted on CPC-treated nitrocellulose membranes. The polysaccharide composition of these extracts was determined. The membrane stained with toluidine blue (reversible staining) was destained and the same lanes used for immunological detection or other applications. Reversible staining was also applied to recover single species of polysaccharides after electrophoretic separation of mixtures of GAGs and their transfer onto membranes. Single bands were released from the membrane with an efficiency of 70-100% for further biochemical characterization.     

应用毛细管区带电泳测定人血清蛋白

摘要：研究了一种用于临床检测血清蛋白的毛细管区带电泳方法。弹性石英毛细管50μmi.d.×47cm（40cm有效长度）,检测波长200nm,血清用运行缓冲液（含12.5mmol/L四硼酸钠、1mmol/L乳酸钙、0.7mmol/L硫酸镁,pH9.70）稀释40倍,气压进样17.23kPa·s,分析电压23kV。正常血清蛋白分为6种,孕妇的分7种（多一个未知的α0峰）。将正常人、孕妇、多发性骨髓瘤和强直性脊柱炎患者的血清蛋白的毛细管电泳与传统的醋酸纤维膜电泳相比较,前者具有高分辨率、在线数据处理和自动化的特     

Multistep liquid-phase lithography for fast prototyping of microfluidic free-flow-electrophoresis chips

We present a fast and versatile method to produce functional micro free-flow electrophoresis chips. Microfluidic structures were generated between two glass slides applying multistep liquid-phase lithography, omitting troublesome bonding steps or cost-intensive master structures. Utilizing a novel spacer-less approach with the photodefinable polymer polyethyleneglycol dimethacrylate (PEG-DA), microfluidic devices with hydrophilic channels of only 25 μm in height were generated. The microfluidic chips feature ion-permeable segregation walls between the electrode channels and the separation bed and hydrophilic surfaces. The performance of the chip is demonstrated by free-flow electrophoretic separation of fluorescent xanthene dyes and fluorescently labeled amino acids.     

Cellulose acetate graft copolymers with nano-structured architectures: Synthesis and characterization

Cellulose acetate is a very good film-forming polymer with major applications in cigarette filters, photographic films, cosmetics and pharmaceutics formulations and membrane separation processes. Nevertheless, its rigidity and relative hydrophobic character can be limiting drawbacks for some applications. In this work, new cellulose acetate materials with highly flexible and hydrophilic grafts were obtained with different hydrophilic/hydrophobic balances. Cellulose acetate was grafted with methyl diethylene glycol methacrylate (MDEGMA) from brominated macroinitiators by atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) in two steps. The first step consisted of introducing ATRP initiator groups on cellulose acetate by reacting hydroxyl side groups with 2-bromoisobutyryl bromide. A preliminary study was then carried out to determine the experimental conditions for the controlled ATRP of MDEGMA homopolymerization in a solvent (cyclopentanone) compatible with cellulose acetate grafting. In these conditions, the MDEGMA homopolymerization followed Hanns Fischer’s kinetics model accounting for the radical persistent effect. The ATRP grafting was then investigated for two cellulose acetate macroinitiators differing in the number of their ATRP initiator groups. Two families of graft copolymers with nano-structured architectures were obtained. The first family corresponded to copolymers with a high number of short grafts. The copolymers of the second family had almost the same graft weight fractions but a small number of long grafts. The morphology of the graft copolymers was then investigated by synchrotron X-ray scattering. The most informative results showed that the phase segregation depended upon the number and length of the poly(MDEGMA) grafts. The copolymer with 44 wt.% of long grafts showed a segregated morphology of nano-domains with sharp interfaces and a radius of gyration of 11.5 nm (from Guinier’s law). These cellulose acetate copolymers eventually led to strong films with potential applications in membrane separations.     

Nafion membrane electrophoresis with direct and simplified end-column pulse electrochemical detection of amino acids

A novel electrophoresis technique, in which the separation column was replaced by a strip of Nafion membrane (5.0 cm x 0.20 mm x 0.25 mm), was developed for the separation of an amino acid mixture (glycine, asparic acid and lysine), followed by quadruple-pulse electrochemical detection. Nafion membrane contains hydrophilic pores (10-20 A and 50-60 A in size) acting as very narrow electrophoresis channels. The fixed-charge sites (-SO(3) (-)) on the hydrophilic pore surface provide a strong charged background. A platinum disk electrode (0.90 mm inner diameter) was employed as the detection electrode and the electrophoresis cathode was used as the quasi-reference and counter electrode for the end-column electrochemical detector, without decoupler. Under optimized conditions the mixture of amino acids could be separated at a voltage of only 90 V with a detection limit of 10(-7) M, indicating that Nafion membrane electrophoresis is a potentially attractive technique for the separation of small organic molecules or ions.     

Analysis of multiplex PCR fragments with PMMA microchip

Microchip electrophoresis is a promising technique for analysis of bio-molecules. It has the advantages of fast analysis, high sensitivity, high resolution and low-cost of samples. Plastic chip has the potential of mass production for clinical use for its advantages in biocompatibility and low cost. In this work, the method for fabrication of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) chip was described, and conditions for DNA separation were investigated with the chip. The PMMA microchip was used for detection of multiplex PCR products of 18 and 36 cases with SARS and hepatitis B virus infection under optimized separation conditions. Microchip electrophoresis showed higher sensitivity, higher resolution and less time consumption when compared with gel electrophoresis. The microchip electrophoresis with PMMA chip provided a rapid, sensitive and reliable method for analysis of multiplex PCR products.     

Characterizing plant cell wall derived oligosaccharides using hydrophilic interaction chromatography with mass spectrometry detection

Analysis of complex mixtures of plant cell wall derived oligosaccharides is still challenging and multiple analytical techniques are often required for separation and characterization of these mixtures. In this work it is demonstrated that hydrophilic interaction chromatography coupled with evaporative light scattering and mass spectrometry detection (HILIC-ELSD-MS(n)) is a valuable tool for identification of a wide range of neutral and acidic cell wall derived oligosaccharides. The separation potential for acidic oligosaccharides observed with HILIC is much better compared to other existing techniques, like capillary electrophoresis, reversed phase and porous-graphitized carbon chromatography. Important structural information, such as presence of methyl esters and acetyl groups, is retained during analysis. Separation of acidic oligosaccharides with equal charge yet with different degrees of polymerization can be obtained. The efficient coupling of HILIC with ELSD and MS(n)-detection enables characterization and quantification of many different oligosaccharide structures present in complex mixtures. This makes HILIC-ELSD-MS(n) a versatile and powerful additional technique in plant cell wall analysis.     

Impact of prefractionation using Gradiflow on two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and protein identification by matrix assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight-mass spectrometry

Prefractionation of protein samples prior to two-dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE) has the potential to increase the dynamic detection range for proteomic analysis. We evaluated a membrane-based electrophoretic separation technique (Gradiflow) for its ability to fractionate an exoproteome sample from the filamentous fungus Trichoderma reesei. The sample was separated on the basis of size and charge. Buffer optimization was found to be necessary for successful size fractionation. Fractionation by charge was used to resolve the sample into four fractions that were subjected to analysis by two-dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE). Enhanced detection of low-abundance proteins with selective removal of high-abundance species was achieved. Fractionated and unfractionated samples were examined for differences in the ability to identify proteins following 2-DE using trypsin in-gel digestion followed by peptide mass fingerprinting using matrix assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight-mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS). Fractionated samples showed marked improvement in protein identification ability and sequence coverage. This study demonstrates the utility of the Gradiflow for fractionation, resulting in an enhancement of resolution and characterization of a moderately complex proteome.     

Diagnostic use of an analysis of urinary proteins by a practicable sodium dodecyl sulfate-electrophoresis method and rapid two-dimensional electrophoresis

Two methods suitable for routine clinical analyses of urinary proteins are presented and compared. The first is a horizontal sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis technique, suitable for simultaneous analysis of 20 native urinary samples. This method uses polyacrylamide gradient gels, prepared with a laboratory-built gel casting device. The second method is a rapid two-dimensional electrophoresis procedure, combining cellulose acetate electrophoresis and sodium dodecyl sulfate-electrophoresis. The first step uses a routine system (Chemetron), the second separation step followed by staining with Coomassie Brilliant Blue R is performed on the PhastSystem. The resulting two-dimensional patterns reveal urinary proteins distributed according to the 5-zone pattern of native proteins (albumin, alpha-1, alpha-2, beta, gamma-globulin) as well as to the logarithm of their molecular weights. Examples of (routine) diagnoses with a special interest in the monitoring of kidney transplant patients are shown.     

Use of pervaporation for separating azeotropic mixtures using two different hollow fiber membranes

The performance of a “two-membrane column” was demonstrated for the separation of water-ethanol and water-isopropanol azeotropic mixtures. The cellulose acetate and silicone rubber membranes which were employed for the strippers showed opposite permselectivity towards each component of the mixtures. The two strippers were connected together with liquid pumps installed between them. A great increase in overall separation factor (over 100) was obtained. The degree of separation was dependent upon the ratio of feed to reject rate. Azeotropic mixtures were successfully separated by using the two-membrane column. This column is expected to provide us with an energy-saving, high purity separation process     

Towards disposable lab-on-a-chip: poly(methylmethacrylate) microchip electrophoresis device with electrochemical detection

A fully disposable microanalytical device based on combination of poly(methylmethacrylate) (PMMA) capillary electrophoresis microchips and thick-film electrochemical detector strips is described. Variables influencing the separation efficiency and amperometric response, including separation voltage or detection potential are assessed and optimized. The versatility, simplicity and low-cost advantages of the new design are coupled to an attractive analytical performance, with good precision (relative standard deviation RSD = 1.68% for n = 10). Applicability for assays of mixtures of hydrazine, phenolic compounds, and catecholamines is demonstrated. Such coupling of low-cost PMMA-based microchips with thick-film electrochemical detectors holds great promise for mass production of single-use micrototal analytical systems.     

Simplified hemoglobin chain detection by capillary electrophoresis

Hemoglobin (Hb) chains have been analyzed traditionally by cellulose acetate electrophoresis after sample extraction with acetone and denaturation with concentrated urea in order to detect thalassemia (Thal). A few capillary electrophoresis (CE) methods have been also described for separation of Hb chains also after sample extraction. We describe a CE method for analysis of Hb chains without sample preparation. Red blood cells were diluted (hemolyzed) in water and injected directly onto the capillary. The separation was performed in concentrated phosphate buffer at pH 12.6 and 2.15. Under these conditions of pH and buffer concentration, the chains were denatured and separated from the heme during electrophoresis. The common variants of the beta-chains, such as beta(S), beta(C), and beta(E), are also separated from each other. The intact Hb molecule is analyzed using the same sample and CE conditions but in an arginine-Tris buffer, pH 8.6. The data from the three separations are used to complement each other for interpretation of the presence of Hb variants and for thalassemia. The main advantages of this method are simplicity and speed. This method illustrates the flexibility and simplicity of the CE for analysis of the hemoglobinopathies.     

Electroosmotic pump-assisted capillary electrophoresis of proteins

A new method for protein analysis, that is, electroosmotic pump-assisted capillary electrophoresis (EOPACE), is developed and demonstrated to possess several advantages over other CE-based techniques. The column employed in EOPACE consists of two linked sections, poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA)-coated and uncoated capillaries. The PVA-coated capillary column is the section for protein electrophoresis in EOPACE. Electroosmotic flow (EOF) is almost completely suppressed in this hydrophilic polymer coated section, so protein electrophoresis in the PVA-modified capillary is free of irreversible protein adsorption to the capillary inner wall. The uncoated capillary section serves as an electroosmotic pump, since EOF towards cathode occurs at neutral pH in the naked silica capillary. By the separation of a protein mixture containing cytochrome c (Cyt-c), myoglobin and trypsin inhibitor, we have demonstrated the advantages of EOPACE method over other relevant ones such as pressure assisted CE, capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) with naked capillary and CZE with PVA-coated capillary. A significant feature of EOPACE is that simultaneous separation of cationic, anionic and uncharged proteins at neutral pH can be readily accomplished by a single run, which is impossible or difficult to realize by the other CE-based methods. The high column efficiency and good reproducibility in protein analysis by EOPACE are verified and discussed. In addition, separation of tryptic digests of Cyt-c with the EOPACE system is demonstrated.     

Electrokinetic-driven microfluidic system in poly(dimethylsiloxane) for mass spectrometry detection integrating sample injection, capillary electrophoresis, and electrospray emitter on-chip

A novel microsystem device in poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) for MS detection is presented. The microchip integrates sample injection, capillary electrophoretic separation, and electrospray emitter in a single substrate, and all modules are fabricated in the PDMS bulk material. The injection and separation flow is driven electrokinetically and the total amount of external equipment needed consists of a three-channel high-voltage power supply. The instant switching between sample injection and separation is performed through a series of low-cost relays, limiting the separation field strength to a maximum of 270 V/cm. We show that this set-up is sufficient to accomplish electrospray MS analysis and, to a moderate extent, microchip separation of standard peptides. A new method of instant in-channel oxidation makes it possible to overcome the problem of irreversibly bonded PDMS channels that have recovered their hydrophobic properties over time. The fast method turns the channel surfaces hydrophilic and less prone to nonspecific analyte adsorption, yielding better separation efficiencies and higher apparent peptide mobilities.     

Evaluation of a novel hydrophilic derivatized capillary for protein analysis by capillary electrophoresis —electrospray mass spectrometry

A new type of hydrophilic derivatized capillary has been used to enable the on-line capillary electrophoresis separation and electrospray mass spectrometric detection of a mixture of proteins containing bovine cytochrome c, tuna cytochrome c and horse heart myoglobin. Less than 40 fmol of each compound were loaded into the capillary. Baseline resolution of components was achieved, as were accurate assignments of molecular masses. The hydrophilic derivatized capillaries were taken through extensive testing procedures to characterize their performance and capabilities for protein analysis. A mixture of six proteins (cytochrome c, ribonuclease A, -chymotrypsinogen, myoglobin, carbonic anhydrase II and -lactalbumin) in acetic acid—sodium acetate buffer was used to delineate the relationships between migration time and pH, along with migration time and buffer concentration for each protein. The variations in capillary efficiency as a function of pH and as a function of buffer concentration were also characterized for the same six proteins in the acetic acid–sodium acetate system. A pH of 4.8 was found to offer an excellent compromise between separation efficiency (up to 500 000 theoretical plates) and analysis time. Capillary efficiencies were also found to be very good when employing a Tris · HCl electrolyte adjusted to pH 4.8. Lastly, electropherogram reproducibility and capillary durability were examined with the finding that little deterioration of the capillary occurred over the course of 400 injections (200 h run time). This represents a notable improvement over previously documented derivatization procedures designed to reduce protein adsorption to fused-silica capillary walls     

Pervaporation separation of ethyl tert-butyl ether and ethanol mixtures with a blended membrane

A new kind of membrane was prepared by blending cellulose acetate butyrate with cellulose acetate propionate. The properties of this membrane were evaluated by the pervaporation separation of ethyl tert-butyl ether and ethanol mixtures. The experimental results showed that the selectivity and the fluxes of this membrane depend on the blend and on that of processed feed mixtures. With respect to temperature, the overall and the ethanol fluxes obey the Arrhenius equation. The total and the ethanol fluxes increase with the increase of the cellulose acetate butyrate content in the blended membrane, the ethanol concentration in the feed and the experimental temperature. But the selectivity decreases as the cellulose acetate butyrate content in the membrane and the experimental temperature are raised. When the feed composition is varied, the lowest selectivity is observed in the vicinity of the azeotropic composition. The swelling and the sorption experiments also gave the same results.     

A practicable two-dimensional electrophoresis of urinary proteins as a useful tool in medical diagnosis

Practical experience with a rapid two-dimensional electrophoresis technique for routine analysis of urinary proteins is discussed. The method consists of cellulose acetate electrophoresis in combination with sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) electrophoresis, performed together with Coomassie Blue gel staining on "PhastSystem". Over 400 analyses were performed within the time of two years. Most patients were from nephrological, urological and kidney-transplant departments. Some of them were from obstetric, pediatric or oncological departments. A systematic discussion and evaluation of the two-dimensional protein pattern with typical examples is outlined.