Temperature-controlled flow switching in nanocapillary array membranes mediated by poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) polymer brushes grafted by atom transfer radical polymerization

We report actively controlled transport that is thermally switchable and size-selective in a nanocapillary array membrane (NCAM) prepared by grafting poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm) brushes onto the exterior surface of a Au-coated polycarbonate track-etched membrane. A smooth Au layer on the membrane surface, which is key to obtaining a uniform polymer film, was prepared by thermal evaporation of approximately 50 nm Au on both exterior surfaces. After evaporation, the inner diameter of the pore is reduced slightly, but the NCAM retains a narrow pore size distribution. PNIPPAm brushes with 10-30 nm (dry film) thickness were grafted onto the Au surface through surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) using a disulfide initiator, (BrC(CH3)2COO(CH2)11S)2. Molecular transport through the PNIPAAm polymer brush-modified NCAMs was investigated by real-time fluorescence measurements using fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-labeled dextrans ranging from 4.4 to 282 kDa in membranes with variable initial pore diameters (80, 100, and 200 nm) and different PNIPAAm thicknesses. Manipulating the temperature of the NCAM through the PNIPAAm lower critical solution temperature (LCST) causes large, size-dependent changes in the transport rates. Over specific ranges of probe size, transport is completely blocked below the LCST but strongly allowed above the LCST. The combination of the highly uniform PNIPAAm brush and the monodisperse pore size distribution is critical in producing highly reproducible switching behavior. Furthermore, the reversible nature of the switching raises the possibility of using them as actively controlled filtration devices.     

Synthesis and characterization of thermosensitive interpenetrating polymer networks based on N-isopropylacrylamide/N-acryloxysuccinimide, crosslinked with polylysine, grafted onto polypropylene

Interpenetrating polymer networks (IPNs) based on poly (N-isopropylacrylamide), (PNIPAAm) and poly (N-acryloxysuccinimide) (PNAS), grafted onto polypropylene (PP), were synthesized in three consecutive steps using ionizing radiation in the first and second steps and chemical reaction in third one. In the first step a thermosensitive graft copolymer of NIPAAm onto PP film was obtained by gamma radiation with a ⁶⁰Co source. The grafted side chains of PNIPAAm were then crosslinked with gamma radiation to give net-[PP-g-NIPAAm]. The secondary network was obtained in situ by chemical crosslinking between PNAS and polylysine (pLys). The PP-g-IPNs exhibited the lower critical solution temperature (LCST) at around 32 °C. Based on its thermoreversible behavior, this system could be used for immobilization of biomolecules. The phase transition temperature (LCST) and network properties of the IPNs were measured by swelling behavior. Additional characterization by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and infrared (FTIR-ATR) determinations are reported.     

Porous alginate-Ca hydrogels interpenetrated with PNIPAAm networks: Interrelationship between compressive stress and pore morphology

Thermo-sensitive porous hydrogels composed of interpenetrated networks (IPN) of alginate-Ca²⁺ and PNIPAAm have been obtained. The hydrogels were prepared by cross-linking alginate-Na⁺ with Ca²⁺ ions inside PNIPAAm networks. Compressive tests and scanning electron microscopy were used to evaluate gel strength and pore morphology, respectively. IPN hydrogels displayed two distinct pore morphologies under thermal stimuli. Below 30-35 °C, the LCST of PNIPAAm in water, IPN hydrogels were highly porous. The pore size of hydrogel heated above LCST became progressively smaller. Alginate-Ca²⁺ and PNIPAAm hydrogels, used as references, did not present such behaviour, indicating that the porous effect is due to IPN hydrogel. It was verified that higher strength is achieved when the hydrogel presents small pore size and the temperature is increased. It is suggested that at temperatures above LCST, the PNIPAAm chains shrink and pull the alginate-Ca²⁺ networks back. During shrinking, the polymer chains occupy the open spaces (pores from which water is expelled), and therefore, the hydrogel becomes less deformable when subjected to compressive stress. The results presented in this work indicate that the mechanical properties as well as the pore morphologies of these IPN hydrogels can be tailored by thermal stimulus.     

Synthesis,thermo-responsive micellization and caffeine drug release of novel PBMA-<Emphasis Type="Italic">b</Emphasis>-PNIPAAm block polymer brushes

Brush-like block copolymers with poly(t-butyl methacrylate) (PBMA) and poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm) as side arms, PBMA-b-PNIPAAm, were designed and synthesized via a simple free radical polymerization route. The chemical structure and molecular weight of these polymer brushes were characterized and determined by nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H NMR), Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR) and gel permeation chromatography (GPC). The micellar formation by these polymer brushes in aqueous solutions were detected by a surface tension technique, and the critical micelle concentration (CMC) ranged from 1.53 to 8.06 mg L⁻¹. The morphology and geometry of polymer micelles were investigated by transmission electron microscope (TEM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS). The polymer micelles assume the regularly-spherical core-shell structure with well-dispersed individual nanoparticles, and the particle size was in the range from 36 to 93 nm. The PNIPAAm segments exhibited a thermoreversible phase transition, so the resulting block polymer brushes were temperature-sensitive and the low critical solution temperature (LCST) was determined by UV-vis spectrometer at about 28.82–29.40°C. The characteristic parameters of the polymer micelles such as CMC, micellar size and LCST values were affected by their compositional ratios and the length of hydrophilic or hydrophobic chains. The evaluation for caffeine drug release behavior of the block polymer micelles demonstrated that the self-assembled micelles exhibited thermal-triggered properties in controlled drug release.     

Preparation and characterization of a thermoresponsive gigaporous medium for high-speed protein chromatography

A high-speed thermoresponsive medium was developed by grafting poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-butyl methacrylate) (P(NIPAM-co-BMA)) brushes onto gigaporous polystyrene (PS) microspheres via surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) technique, which has strong mechanical strength, good chemical stability and high mass transfer rate for biomacromolecules. The gigaporous structure, surface chemical composition, static protein adsorption, and thermoresponsive chromatographic properties of prepared medium (PS–P(NIPAM-co-BMA)) were characterized in detail. Results showed that the PS microspheres were successfully grafted with P(NIPAM-co-BMA) brushes and that the gigaporous structure was robustly maintained. After grafting, the nonspecific adsorption of proteins on PS microspheres was greatly reduced. A column packed with PS–P(NIPAM-co-BMA) exhibited low backpressure and significant thermo-responsibility. By simply changing the column temperature, it was able to separate three model proteins at the mobile phase velocity up to 2167 cm h⁻¹. In conclusion, the thermoresponsive polymer brushes grafted gigaporous PS microspheres prepared by ATRP are very promising in ‘green’ high-speed preparative protein chromatography.     

Modelling of the pore structure variation with pH for pore-filled pH-sensitive poly(vinylidene fluoride)–poly(acrylic acid) membranes

Pore structure variation as a function of pH was investigated for the pore-filled pH-sensitive poly(acrylic acid)-poly(vinylidene fluoride) membranes. The pore radius reduced drastically as the poly(acrylic acid) gel incorporated inside the nascent substrate, which is from 113 nm of nascent substrate to as low as 7.0 nm of pore-filled membranes at pH acidic. For the membranes, the pore radii at pH neutral estimated by the extend Nernst–Planck equation (2.76–4.20 nm) and by the Spiegler–Kedem model with the steric-hindrance pore model (3.4–4.1 nm) are close to each other and comparable with that calculated from the poly(acrylic acid) gel correlation length (1.79–2.93 nm). The calculated pore density at pH neutral (49–258 × 10¹⁴ m⁻²) is much higher than that at pH acidic (2.8–39.8 × 10¹⁴ m⁻²). The results are interpreted in terms of the gel structure in the pore-filled membranes.     

Fast synthesis of temperature-sensitive PNIPAAm hydrogels by microwave irradiation

A novel method, microwave irradiation synthesis, is proposed for the preparation of thermo-sensitive poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm) hydrogels. The PNIPAAm hydrogels were separately synthesized by using microwave irradiation method and water-bath heating method. Chemical groups, lower critical solution temperature (LCST) and surface morphology of these PNIPAAm hydrogels were characterized by FT-IR, DSC and SEM. Swelling ratios of the gels were measured gravimetrically in the temperature range from 10.0 to 60.0 °C. Results showed that (1) the use of microwave irradiation can greatly shorten the reaction time required for PNIPAAm hydrogel synthesis from several hours to several minutes in comparison with water-bath heating method, and obviously improve the yields of the PNIPAAm gels, which were up to 99% after a short reaction time; (2) SEM micrographs and textural measurement revealed that the gels synthesized using microwave irradiation had more porous structure, and their average pore sizes and specific surface areas were larger than those of the gels synthesized using water-bath heating method; and (3) the PNIPAAm hydrogels synthesized using microwave irradiation had much higher swelling ratios at 10.0 °C below the LCST, and had lower swelling ratio at 60.0 °C above the LCST compared to the hydrogels synthesized by water-bath method.     

Controlled pore functionalization of poly(ethylene terephthalate) track-etched membranes via surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization

A new method for surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) on the technical polymer poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) has been developed which allows controlling and estimating the layer thickness of the grafted polymer in the isocylindrical pores of track-etched membranes. After PET surface treatment by oxidative hydrolysis, the bromoalkyl initiator was immobilized on the PET surface in a two-step solid-phase reaction; the isoporous membrane structure was preserved, and the pore diameter was increased from 760 to 790 nm. Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm) was grafted under ATRP conditions from a methanol/water mixture at room temperature. Both monomer concentration and reaction time could be used as parameters to adjust the degree of grafting. Effective grafted layer thickness and its response to temperature were estimated from pure water permeability. All data, especially the high polymer densities (0.37 g/cm3) in the swollen layers at 25 degrees C, indicate that grafted PNIPAAm with a "brush" structure has been achieved. For dry PNIPAAm layer thicknesses on the PET pore walls of up to 80 nm, a temperature-induced swelling/deswelling ratio of approximately 3 had been observed. Reduction of the brush grafting density, via composition of the reaction mixture used in solid-phase synthesis for initiator immobilization, led to an increase of that swelling/deswelling ratio. Further, density and temperature response of the grafted PNIPAAm layers synthesized via ATRP were compared with those obtained in the same membranes by less controlled photografting, leading to lower grafting density and larger gradients in grafted layer density and, consequently, much higher swelling/deswelling ratios (>15).     

丙烯腈-N-异丙基丙烯酰胺接枝共聚物的合成及其对聚丙烯腈分离膜的改性

以巯基乙胺盐酸盐(AESH)为链转移剂、2,2'-偶氮二异丁腈为引发剂,合成了具有端氨基的聚(N-异丙基丙烯酰胺)(PNIPAAm);与甲基丙烯酰氯反应,得到可聚合的PNIPAAm大分子单体;进而与丙烯腈共聚,合成了丙烯腈-N-异丙基丙烯酰胺接枝共聚物(P(AN-g-NIPAAm)).基于浸没沉淀相转化法制备了聚丙烯腈/P(AN-g-NIPAAm)共混膜.红外及核磁分析表明,通过调控AESH的浓度可制备得到不同链长的PNIPAAm大分子单体;用激光光散射进一步测定了共聚物的重均分子量;采用鼓泡接触角及浊度测定考察了共聚物的温敏特性;XPS结果证实PNIPAAm链在膜表面发生富集;纯水压滤实验发现所制备的分离膜40℃(高于PNIPAAm的LCST)时的水通量是25℃(低于PNIPAAm的LCST)时的近2倍,具有较明显的温敏性.     

Grafting of temperature sensitive PNIPAAm on hydrophilised polysulfone UF membranes

Poly(N-isopropyl acrylamide) (PNIPAAm) was grafted on a polysulfone UF membrane. The changes of permeability as well as retention of PEG (35 kg/mol) and Dextran (500 kg/mol) between 23 and 60 °C were determined for both grafted and unmodified membranes. The results showed that the viscosity corrected water permeability and solute retention were almost constant for the unmodified membranes within the measured temperature range, the permeability of the grafted membranes increased and the retention of Dextran and PEG decreased with temperature. The variation of changes was most obvious in the temperature range 27–37 °C for the modified membranes due to the lower critical solution temperature (LCST) of PNIPAAm. The location and profile of PNIPAAm inside and on the surface of the membrane were analysed by SEM and FTIR. Depth profile calculation for FTIR spectra showed that PNIPAAm was mostly placed inside the membrane (at a depth of 1.06–1.10 μm from the surface) rather than on the surface. The amount of grafted PNIPAAm was low and did not significantly affect the morphology of the membrane. Therefore, a difference in SEM pictures of modified and unmodified membranes could not be seen. The modified membrane exhibited a clearly different thermal response compared to the unmodified one.     

ATRP synthesis and association properties of temperature responsive dextran copolymers grafted with poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)

Temperature responsive copolymers of dextran grafted with poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (Dex-g-PNIPAAM) were prepared by atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) in homogeneous mild conditions without using protecting group chemistry. Dextran macroinitiator was synthesized by reaction of dextran with 2-chloropropionyl chloride at room temperature in DMF containing 2% LiCl. ATRP was carried out in DMF:water 50:50 (v/v) mixtures at room temperature with CuBr/Tris(2-dimethylaminoethyl)amine (Me₆TREN) as catalyst. Several grafted copolymers with well defined number and length of low polydispersity grafted chains were prepared. Temperature induced association properties in aqueous solution were studied as a function of temperature and polymer concentration by dynamic light scattering, fluorescence spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy (AFM). LCST, ranging from 35 to 41 °C, was significantly affected by number and length of grafted chains. The fine tuning of LCST around body temperature is an important characteristic not obtainable by conventional radical grafting of PNIPAAM. Well defined spherical nanoparticles were formed above the LCST of PNIPAAM. Hydrodynamic diameter was in the range 73-98 nm.     

Encapsulation of silica nanoparticles by redox-initiated graft polymerization from the surface of silica nanoparticles

This study describes a facile and versatile method for preparing polymer-encapsulated silica particles by ‘grafting from’ polymerization initiated by a redox system comprising ceric ion (Ce⁴⁺) as an oxidant and an organic reductant immobilized on the surface of silica nanoparticles. The silica nanoparticles were firstly modified by 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane, then reacted with poly(ethylene glycol) acrylate through the Michael addition reaction, so that hydroxyl-terminated poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) were covalently attached onto the nanoparticle surface and worked as the reductant. Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), a common hydrophobic polymer, and poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm), a thermosensitive polymer, were successfully grafted onto the surface of silica nanoparticles by ‘grafting from’ polymerization initiated by the redox reaction of Ce⁴⁺ with PEG on the silica surface in acid aqueous solutions. The polymer-encapsulated silica nanoparticles (referred to as silica@PMMA and silica@PNIPAAm, respectively) were characterized by infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, and transmission electron microscopy. On the contrary, graft polymerization did not occur on bare silica nanoparticles. In addition, during polymerization, sediments were observed for PMMA and for PNIPAAm at a polymerization temperature above its low critical solution temperature (LCST). But the silica@PNIPAAm particles obtained at a polymerization temperature below the LCST can suspend stably in water throughout the polymerization process.     

Thermosensitive Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)-g -Polyamidoamine Dendrimer Derivatives: Preparation and the Drug Release Behaviors

Summary: A series of thermally responsive dendritic core-shell polymers were prepared based upon dendritic polyamidoamine (PAMAM), modified with carboxyl end-capped linear poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm-COOH) in different ratios via an esterification process to obtain PNIPAAm-g-PAMAM. The graft ratio of PNIPAAm could be adjusted by changing the feed ratio of PAMAM-OH to PNIPAAm-COOH and was verified by ¹H NMR and gel penetration chromatography (GPC). The lower critical solution temperature (LCST) of PNIPAAm-g-PAMAM evaluated by UV-vis spectrophotometer was about 32 °C. Indomethacin (IMC) as a model drug was loaded in the thermosensitive polymer-grafted dendrimer derivative and its release behavior was studied below and above its LCST (27 °C vs 37 °C). Results showed that the LCST of PNIPAAm-g-PAMAM was around 32 °C compared with that of the pure PNIPAAm. The release behavior of the indomethacin entrapped in the internal cavities of the PNIPAAm-g-PAMAM showed that almost 77% of the drug was cumulatively released at 27 °C after 10 hours, whereas only 20% was released at 37 °C. The release rate of IMC from the IMC/PNIPAAm-g-PAMAM complex at 37 °C is significantly slower than that at 27 °C, which indicates that the PNIPAAm chains grafted on the surface of PAMAM dendrimer could act as a channel switching on-off button through expending or contracting in response to the temperature variation and could control the drug release by varying the surrounding temperature.     

Non-fluorinated proton-exchange membranes based on melt extruded SEBS/HDPE blends

This paper reports on functional polymer blends prepared by melt-processing technologies for proton-exchange membrane applications. Styrene–ethylene/butylene–styrene (SEBS) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) were melt blended using twin-screw compounding, extruded into thin films by extrusion–calendering. The films were then grafted with sulfonic acid moieties to obtain ionic conductivity leading to proton-exchange membranes. The effect of blend composition and sulfonation time was investigated. The samples were characterized in terms of morphology, microstructure, thermo-mechanical properties and in terms of their conductivity, ion exchange capacity (IEC) and water uptake in an effort to relate the blend microstructure to the membrane properties. The HDPE was found to be present in the form of elongated structures which created an anisotropic structure especially at lower concentrations. The HDPE increased the membrane mechanical properties and restricted swelling, water uptake and methanol crossover. Room temperature through-plane conductivities of the investigated membranes were up to 4.5E−02 S cm⁻¹ at 100% relative humidity, with an ionic exchange capacity of 1.63 meq g⁻¹.     

Switchable surface traps for injectable bead-based chromatography in PDMS microfluidic channels

We report here a reversible microchannel surface capture system for stimuli-responsive grafted bioanalytical beads. Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm) was grafted onto polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) surfaces by a UV-mediated graft polymerization from a photoinitiator that was preadsorbed in the channel wall. The surface grafting density and resulting switchable hydrophilic/hydrophobic properties were controlled by varying the photo-illumination times and/or the initiator concentration. At limiting PNIPAAm-graft densities, the surfaces demonstrated minimal contact angles of 35 degrees below the lower critical solution temperature (LCST) and maximal contact angles of 82 degrees above it. These contact angles could be varied depending on the graft density. The surface grafts are spatially limited to the photo-illuminated region to define where the trap is constructed. The surface traps capture PNIPAAm-grafted nanobeads uniformly above the LCST and facilitate their rapid release as the temperature is reversed to below the LCST. This dual surface trap and injectable chromatography system could be useful in many applications, such as affinity separations, immunoassays, and enzyme bioprocesses, by providing for the controlled capture and release of chromatography beads.     

Thermoresponsive Polymer Brush Modulation on the Direction of Motion of Phoretically Driven Janus Micromotors

We report a thermoresponsive poly(N‐isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) brush functionalized Janus Au–Pt bimetallic micromotor capable of modulating the direction of motion with the change of the ambient temperature. The PNIPAM@Au–Pt micromotor moved along the Au–Pt direction with a speed of 8.5 μm s^?1 in 1.5 % H₂O₂ at 25 °C (below the lower critical solution temperature (LCST) of PNIPAM), whereas it changed the direction of motion (i.e., along the Pt–Au direction) and the speed decreased to 2.3 μm s^?1 at 35 °C (above LCST). Below LCST, PNIPAM brushes grafted on the Au side were hydrophilic and swelled, which permitted the electron transfer and proton diffusion on the Au side, and thus the motion is regarded as a self‐electrophoretic mechanism. However, PNIPAM brushes above LCST became hydrophobic and collapsed, and thus the driving mechanism switched to the self‐diffusiophoresis like that of Pt‐modified Janus silica motors. These motors could reversibly change the direction of motion with the transition of the hydrophobic and hydrophilic states of the grafted PNIPAM brushes. Such a thermoresponsive polymer brush functionalization method provides a new strategy for engineering the kinematic behavior of phoretically driven micro/nanomotors.     

Temperature-sensitive swelling of poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) brushes with low molecular weight and grafting density

Temperature-sensitive poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm) brushes with different molecular weights M(n) and grafting densities σ were prepared by the "grafting-to" method. Changes in their physicochemical properties according to temperature were investigated with the help of in situ spectroscopic ellipsometry and in situ attenuated total reflection Fourier-transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy. Brush criteria indicate a transition between a brush conformation below the lower critical solution temperature (LCST) and an intermediate to mushroom conformation above the LCST. By in situ ellipsometry distinct changes in the brush layer parameters (wet thickness, refractive index, buffer content) were observed. A broadening of the temperature region with maximum deswelling occurred with decreasing grafting density. The brush layer properties were independent of the grafting density below the LCST, but showed a virtually monotonic behavior above the LCST. The midtemperature ?(half) of the deswelling process increased with increasing grafting density. Thus grafting density-dependent design parameters for such functional films were presented. For the first time, ATR-FTIR spectroscopy was used to monitor segment density and hydrogen bonding changes of these very thin PNIPAAm brushes as a function of temperature based on significant variations of the methyl stretching, Amide I, as well as Amide II bands with respect to intensity and wavenumber position. No dependence on M(n) and σ in the wavenumber shift of these bands above the LCST was found. The temperature profile of these band intensities and thus segment density was found to be rather step-like, exceeding temperatures around the LCST, while the respective profile of their wavenumber positions suggested continuous structural and hydration processes. Remaining buffer amounts and residual intermolecular segment/water interaction in the collapsed brushes above the LCST could be confirmed by both in situ methods.     

Graft polymerization from pore wall of three-dimensionally ordered macroporous cross-linked polystyrene via atom transfer radical polymerization

The surface-initiated atom-transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) technique was applied to the graft polymerization of methyl methacrylate (MMA) and N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAm) from three-dimensionally ordered macroporous cross-linked polystyrene (3DOM CLPS) on which the initiator, halogen atom was immobilized onto the pore wall of 3DOM CLPS by chloromethylation. FT-IR and TG-DWA analyses confirm that the graft polymerization of MMA and NIPAm via ATRP had been taken place at the pore wall of 3DOM CLPS. The initiating efficiency of chloromethyl groups was calculated according to the data of TGA-titration, revealed that the benzyl chloride is not only distributed on the surface of the pore walls but also must be present throughout the inner of the cross-linked polystyrene matrix. SEM analyses show that the grafted layers are smooth and homogeneous, and the ordered structure is well preserved after polymerization. By the adjustment of the graft polymerization time, the thickness of grafted polymer layers can be controlled. The max thickness of grafted PMMA layer is 85 nm and the max thickness of grafted PNIPAm layer is 35 nm.     

Preparation of high-capacity,weak anion-exchange membranes for protein separations using surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization

This contribution describes a method to prepare high-capacity anion-exchange membranes for chromatographic bioseparations. Surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization was used to graft poly(2-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate) (poly(DMAEMA)) nanolayers from the pore surfaces of commercially available regenerated cellulose membranes. Initial measurements were made to determine the thickness evolution of the poly(DMAEMA) nanolayers, using a model flat substrate designed to mimic the three-dimensional nature of initiator incorporation into the membrane. Thereafter, polymerization time was used as the independent variable to control the mass of polymer grafted from the membrane surfaces and, thus, the protein binding capacity. ATR-FTIR, AFM, and SEM were used to characterize changes in the chemical functionality, surface topography, and pore morphology of membranes as a result of modification. Bovine serum albumin was used to evaluate the static protein binding capacity of poly(DMAEMA)-modified membranes. Maximum static binding capacities increased with increasing polymerization time in a linear fashion for short polymerization times (<6 h). For longer polymerization times, capacity increased non-linearly, eventually reaching a plateau value of 66.3 mg/mL.     

Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) grafted into nanopores: Thermo-responsive behaviour in the presence of different salts

Surface initiated polymerization of N(isopropylacrylamide) (NIPAM) was performed by controlled radical polymerization on PET track-etched membranes presenting two different pore diameters (narrow pores: ∼80 nm and large pores: ∼330 nm). The opening and closing characteristics of the resulting PNIPAM-g-PET membranes were investigated by conductometric measurements carried out at different temperatures below and above the LCST of PNIPAM and in the presence of different salts. Depending on the membrane pore size, two types of permeation control mechanisms are observed. In large pore membranes, expanded PNIPAM chains conformations result in reduced effective pore size and therefore lower permeabilities relative to collapsed macromolecules chain conformations. In contrast, in narrow pore membranes, the expanded PNIPAM brush presents greater degrees of hydration in the surface layer and therefore gives rise to higher permeabilities than the collapsed conformation. In this situation, the overall permeability is thus comparable to that of a hydrogel membrane.