Extended peptide-based inhibitors efficiently target the proteasome and reveal overlapping specificities of the catalytic beta-subunits

BACKGROUND: The 26S proteasome is responsible for most cytosolic proteolysis, and is an important protease in major histocompatibility complex class I-mediated antigen presentation. Constitutively expressed proteasomes from mammalian sources possess three distinct catalytically active species, beta1, beta2 and beta5, which are replaced in the gamma-interferon-inducible immunoproteasome by a different set of catalytic subunits, beta1i, beta2i and beta5i, respectively. Based on preferred cleavage of short fluorogenic peptide substrates, activities of the proteasome have been assigned to individual subunits and classified as 'chymotryptic-like' (beta5), 'tryptic-like' (beta2) and 'peptidyl-glutamyl peptide hydrolyzing' (beta1). Studies with protein substrates indicate a far more complicated, less strict cleavage preference. We reasoned that inhibitors of extended size would give insight into the extent of overlapping substrate specificity of the individual activities and subunits. RESULTS: A new class of proteasome inhibitors, considerably extended in comparison with the commonly used fluorescent substrates and peptide-based inhibitors, has been prepared. Application of the safety catch resin allowed the generation of the target compounds using a solid phase protocol. Evaluation of the new compounds revealed a set of highly potent proteasome inhibitors that target all individual active subunits with comparable affinity, unlike the other inhibitors described to date. Modification of the most active compound, adamantane-acetyl-(6-aminohexanoyl)(3)-(leucinyl)(3)-vinyl-(methyl)-sulfone (AdaAhx(3)L(3)VS), itself capable of proteasome inhibition in living cells, afforded a new set of radio- and affinity labels. CONCLUSIONS: N-terminal extension of peptide vinyl sulfones has a profound influence on both their efficiency and selectivity as proteasome inhibitors. Such extensions greatly enhance inhibition and largely obliterate selectivity towards the individual catalytic activities. We conclude that for the interaction with larger substrates, there appears to be less discrimination of different substrate sequences for the catalytic activities than is normally assumed based on the use of small peptide-based substrates and inhibitors. The compounds described here are readily accessible synthetically, and are more potent inhibitors in living cells than their shorter peptide vinyl sulfone counterparts.     

Isoprene functionalisation : Chlorination of C10-isoprenoid sulfones with hexachloro-ethane

Lithiation of the sulfones 1–3 in THF at ?78° with lithium diisopropyl amide (LDA) is regioselective, since deuteration of the α-lithiosulfone 4 results in formation of the α-monodeuteriated sulfone 7. Higher temperature causes an intramolecular 1,4-addition of the lithiated sulfone 4 to the lithiated cyclic sulfone 19 and an intermolecular 1,4-addition of the lithiated sulfones 5 and 6. The cyclisation of Z-sulfone 1 has been used for the isolation of the isomeric E-sulfone 2 from mixtures of 1 and 2. The lithiated sulfones 4–6 are chlorinated with hexachloroethane (HCE). Due to acid/base reactions the α,α-dichlorinated cyclic sulfone 23 and α,α'-dichlorinated butadienyl sulfones 13–15 are formed in small amounts.     

Specific inhibition of the chymotrypsin-like activity of the proteasome induces a bipolar morphology in neuroblastoma cells

Background: Lactacystin inhibits cell proliferation and induces a distinctive, predominantly bipolar (two-neurite-bearing) morphology in Neuro 2A murine neuroblastoma cells. It binds with high specificity to the multicatalytic 20S proteasome and inhibits at least three of its peptidase activities (chymotrypsin-like, trypsin-like and peptidylglutamyl-peptide hydrolyzing), each at a different rate, without inhibiting other known proteases. The chymotrypsin-like and trypsin-like activities of the proteasome are inhibited most rapidly, and irreversibly. In an effort to determine which of the peptidase activities needs to be inhibited for neurite outgrowth to occur, we treated Neuro 2A cells with peptide aldehydes that selectively inhibit different proteasome activities.Results: Treatment with peptide aldehydes ending in a hydrophobic residue, all of which inhibit the chymotrypsin-like activity, results in a bipolar morphology in Neuro 2A cells, whereas treatment with a peptide aidehyde inhibitor of the trypsin-like activity does not lead to a detectable change in morphology. One of the inhibitors that induces neurite outgrowth has been previously shown to inhibit the chymotrypsin-like activity of the proteasome without inhibiting the other apparently distinct peptidase activities that cleave after neutral residues, the so-called ‘branched chain amino acid preferring’ (BrAAP) and ‘small neutral amino acid preferring’ (SNAAP) activities, or the peptidylglutamyl-peptide hydrolyzing (PGPH) activity.Conclusions: The chymotrypsin-like activity appears to antagonize bipolar-type neurite outgrowth in Neuro 2A cells, while the trypsin-like, PGPH, BrAAP and SNAAP appear not to do so. Selective inhibition of a single peptidase activity, as opposed to general inhibition of the proteasome, appears sufficient to induce a specific cellular process. Selective inhibition might be useful in managing diseases where only one activity is involved without completely inhibiting the proteasome. It is also possible that endogenous regulators of the proteasome could affect cellular processes and that certain peptidase activities of the proteasome may have roles in specifying a given cell fate,     

Molecular mechanics calculations (MM3) on sulfones

The structures of several sulfones, including dimethyl sulfone, methyl ethyl sulfone, methyl vinyl sulfone, and diphenyl sulfone, have been fit with the MM3 force field to existing experimental data from electron diffraction and microwave spectroscopy. The vibrational spectra have also been fit for six of these compounds. The torsional parameters for the aliphatic sulfones were fit to ab initio 6-31G data. Heats of formation were also fit. © 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Synthesis,Structure, and Chemical Transformations of 2-Chloroprop-2-en-1-yl Sulfones

A green approach was proposed for the synthesis of 2-chloroprop-2-en-1-yl sulfones in 47–94% yield. The molecular and crystal structures of 2-chloroprop-2-en-1-yl phenyl sulfone and 2-chloroprop-2-en-1-yl methyl sulfone were determined by X-ray analysis. π-Stacking interaction between the benzene ring and double bond was revealed in the crystal structure of 2-chloroprop-2-en-1-yl phenyl sulfone. Chloropropenyl sulfones were found to readily undergo dehydrochlorination to give stable allenyl sulfones and alkaline hydrolysis to produce the corresponding acetonyl sulfones. The latter can be converted to oximes by treatment with hydroxylamine hydrochloride.

     

Synthesis of β-Amino-α,α-dichloro Sulfones from Vinyl Sulfones

β-amino-α,α-dichloro sulfones 3 are prepared by the reaction of vinyl sulfone 1 with primary or secondary amines 2in the presence of CCI₄ and NaH.     

A Fluorogenic Assay: Analysis of Chemical Modification of Lysine and Arginine to Control Proteolytic Activity of Trypsin

The chemical modification of amino acids plays an important role in the modulation of proteins or peptides and has useful applications in the activation and stabilization of enzymes, chemical biology, shotgun proteomics, and the production of peptide-based drugs. Although chemoselective modification of amino acids such as lysine and arginine via the insertion of respective chemical moieties as citraconic anhydride and phenyl glyoxal is important for achieving desired application objectives and has been extensively reported, the extent and chemoselectivity of the chemical modification of specific amino acids using specific chemical agents (blocking or modifying agents) has yet to be sufficiently clarified owing to a lack of suitable assay methodologies. In this study, we examined the utility of a fluorogenic assay method, based on a fluorogenic tripeptide substrate (FP-AA1-AA2-AA3) and the proteolytic enzyme trypsin, in determinations of the extent and chemoselectivity of the chemical modification of lysine or arginine. As substrates, we used two fluorogenic tripeptide probes, MeRho-Lys-Gly-Leu(Ac) (lysine-specific substrate) and MeRho-Arg-Gly-Leu(Ac) (arginine-specific substrate), which were designed, synthesized, and evaluated for chemoselective modification of specific amino acids (lysine and arginine) using the fluorogenic assay. The results are summarized in terms of half-maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC₅₀) for the extent of modification and ratios of IC₅₀ values (IC₅₀arginine/IC₅₀lysine and IC₅₀lysine/IC₅₀arginine) as a measure of the chemoselectivity of chemical modification for amino acids lysine and arginine. This novel fluorogenic assay was found to be rapid, precise, and reproducible for determinations of the extent and chemoselectivity of chemical modification.     

Stereospecific rearrangements during the synthesis of pyrrolidines and related heterocycles from cyclizations of amino alcohols with vinyl Sulfones

Conjugate additions of amino alcohols derived from alpha-amino acids to vinyl sulfones, followed by N-benzylation, chlorination, and intramolecular alkylation, provide a convenient route to substituted pyrrolidines. The process is accompanied by the stereospecific rearrangement of substituents from the alpha-position of the amine to the beta-position of the product and takes place via the corresponding aziridinium ion intermediates. Another type of rearrangement was observed during the reaction of (2-piperidine)methanol or 2-(2-piperidine)ethanol with phenyl trans-1-propenyl sulfone, in which the methyl group appears to migrate from the beta- to the alpha-position of the sulfone moiety. This process involves the isomerization of phenyl trans-1-propenyl sulfone to phenyl 2-propenyl sulfone by the addition-elimination of catalytic benzenesulfinate anion to the former vinyl sulfone, followed by conjugate addition of the amino group to the latter sulfone. Chlorination and intramolecular alkylation then afford the corresponding rearranged indolizidine and quinolizidine derivatives, respectively.     

Solid-phase synthesis of peptide vinyl sulfones as potential inhibitors and activity-based probes of cysteine proteases

Peptide vinyl sulfones were prepared from 2-chlorotrityl resin-bound phenolic amino vinyl sulfones in high yield and purity. This method enables the convenient synthesis of peptide vinyl sulfones having different amino acids at the P(1) position. It also allows efficient synthesis of vinyl sulfone-containing, activity-based probes of cysteine proteases used in a proteomic experiment.     

A new synthesis of α-fluorovinylsulfones utilizing the Peterson olefination methodology

α-Fluoro-α-silyl-substituted sulfones 1 are readily prepared from fluoromethyl phenyl sulfone and the appropriate silyl chloride. The use of TBSCl improves both the stability and yield of 1. Lithium derivatives 4 undergo a smooth Peterson olefination reaction with less-enolizable carbonyl compounds to give moderate to good yields of the expected α-fluorovinylsulfones 6, in some cases with high E-stereoselectivity. One-pot reaction with 4 generated in situ from fluoromethyl phenyl sulfone in tetrahydrofuran (THF) also proceeds smoothly, particularly with aldehydes.     

CuCl/I2催化末端烯烃与磺酰氯反应合成烯基砜类化合物研究

研究了用CuCl/I2催化一系列端基烯烃和磺酰氯反应合成烯基砜类化合物,反应体系中添加催化剂量的分子碘,可以大幅度提高该反应的产率,最高可获得97%的产率.同时,考察了各种铜盐的催化活性以及反应介质对反应的影响.     

Synthesis of Vinyl Sulfones by Ring Opening of 4,4‐Dioxo‐2,3‐dihydrobenzo[b][1,4]oxathiines and Their In Situ Reactions with Nucleophilic or Electrophilic Agents

A new, mild method of synthesis of 2‐hydroxyphenyl vinyl sulfones from 4,4‐dioxo‐2,3‐dihydrobenzo[b][1,4]oxathiine derivatives is described. The products were further modified in situ, either by Michael addition of nucleophiles or by reaction of the 2‐hydroxy group with an electrophile. The method can be utilized to immobilize proteins on a suitable support, or for other similar applications, as generation of the vinyl sulfone is always accompanied by formation of phenolate anion that can be used to bond in situ the vinyl sulfone to a suitable support.     

Reactions of diazomethane with sulfonyl-activated double bonds

The cyclo-addition reaction of diazomethane with α,β-unsaturated sulfones is described. Divinyl sulfone and phenyl vinyl sulfone give 1- or 2-pyrazolines depending on the reaction conditions. cis- and trans-1,2-Bis(methylsulfonyl)ethene form pyrazolines, which on reaction with either triethylamine or excess of diazomethane lead to substituted pyrazoles.     

An easy preparation of per- and poly-fluoroalkyl propenyl sulfones

Sodium tridecafluorohexanesulfinate (1a) and sodium 1-chloro-2,2,2-trifluoroethanesulfinate (1b) were prepared by the treatment of 1-iodo-tridecafluorohexane and 1-bromo-1-chloro-2,2,2-trifluoroethane with sodium dithionite in a water-acetonitrile solution. Prolonged reaction of 1a with allyl bromide in DMF afforded tridecafluorohexane 1-propenyl sulfone 2 as the only product in good yield. A similar treatment of 1b gave exclusively 1-chloro-2,2,2-trifluoroethane 3-propenyl sulfone 4. Bromination of 4 followed by dehydrobromination with Et₃N resulted in a mixture of 1-chloro-2,2,2-trifluoroethane 3-bromo-1-propenyl sulfone 6 and 1-chloro-2,2,2-trifluoroethane 2-bromo-3-propenyl sulfone 7, while dehydrobromination with pyridine gave sulfone 6 practically as the only product. α,β-Unsaturated sulfones 2 and 6 were shown to be active dienophiles.     

1-Methyl-1H-tetrazol-5-yl (MT) sulfones in the Julia-Kocienski olefination: Comparison with the PT and the TBT sulfones

The stability and the stereoselectivity of newly prepared n-pentyl 1-methyl-1H-tetrazol-5-yl (MT) sulfone 1a in the Julia-Kocienski reactions were compared with those of the PT sulfone 1b and the TBT sulfone 1c. The improved stability of the anion derived from the n-pentyl MT sulfone 1a enhanced the efficiency of the olefination reactions and gave higher yields of the product alkenes 3 compared with the PT sulfone 1b. Especially high E-selectivity and high yields were obtained from the reaction with aromatic aldehydes and α,β-unsaturated aldehydes. The selectivity of 1a was not so sensitive to the change of base counter ion compared with the PT sulfone 1b. The reaction of the MT sulfones having either ethyl or a longer alkyl chain also gave E-alkenes selectively in high yields.     

Preliminary investigations on novel camphor-derived chiral sulfones: completely stereoselective formation of tricyclic β-hydroxy sulfones from 8- and 10-functionalized camphor derivatives

Some camphor-derived chiral allylic and benzylic sulfones in which the sulfonyl group is located at the C-10, C-9 or C-8 methyl groups of (+)-camphor were synthesized. The C-9 and C-8 substituted sulfones were obtained via Wagner-Meerwein rearrangements of the bicyclic camphor framework. On treatment with LDA, the C-10 and C-8 substituted sulfones cyclized with complete stereoselectivity, affording tricyclic β-hydroxy sulfones whose relative configurations were determined by X-ray crystallography. Tricyclic sulfones 23 and 24 underwent both β-elimination and retro-aldol reactions on further exposure to base. Reduction of the carbonyl group of the C-10 substituted sulfones afforded exo-configured isobornyl sulfones with high stereoselectivity. Reaction of the lithiated isobornyl benzyl sulfone 32 with benzaldehyde generated all four of the possible product diastereomers, of which three were isolated pure by chromatography. Attempted desulfonylation of these diastereomers failed to generate the desired optically active homobenzylic alcohols but the same sulfonyl carbanion trapping/desulfonylation sequence was successful in a model achiral series of compounds.     

An Improved Synthesis of Vinyl- and β-Iodovinyl Sulfones by a Molecular Iodine-Mediated One-Pot Iodosulfonation-Dehydroiodination Reaction

An improved one-pot method to synthesize vinyl sulfones from unsaturated systems by using molecular iodine/sodium arenesulfinate/sodium acetate as reagents was described. Vinyl sulfones derived from styrene derivatives were generally obtained in good to excellent yields except for those bearing strong electron releasing substituent. Aliphatic alkenes and activated alkenes gave the corresponding vinyl sulfone products in moderate to good yields. Arylacetylenes yielded the respective β-iodovinyl sulfones in good yields while low yield was observed with aliphatic terminal alkyne. The potentials of the method entail simplicity, short reaction time, non-anhydrous reaction conditions, employing inexpensive, non-metallic reagent and integrating two reactions that are commonly accomplished separately into a single operation.

Supplemental materials are available for this article. Go to the publisher's online edition of Synthetic Communications® to view the free supplemental file.     

Cross-metathesis reaction of vinyl sulfones and sulfoxides

Cross-metathesis reactions of α,β-unsaturated sulfones and sulfoxides in the presence of molybdenum and ruthenium pre-catalysts were tested. A selective metahesis reaction was achieved between functionalized terminal olefins and vinyl sulfones by using the ‘second generation’ ruthenium catalysts 1c-h while the highly active Schrock catalyst 1b was found to be functional group incompatible with vinyl sulfones. The cross-metathesis products were isolated in good yields with an excellent (E)-selectivity. Both the molybdenum and ruthenium-based complexes were, however, incompatible with α,β- and β,γ-unsaturated sulfoxides.     

Stereoselective synthesis of vinyl sulfones by carbomagnesiation of acetylenic sulfone in the presence of CuCN

Carbomagnesiation of acetylenic sulfone in the presence of catalytic amount of CuCN gave α-sulfonyl vinyl magnesium reagent, which further reacted with aldehydes to afford polysubstituted vinyl sulfones in moderate to good yields.