Plastic deformation localization in commercial Zr-base alloys

The issues concerning the localization of plastic deformation in commercial Zr alloys used in the nuclear power industry are addressed. The possible types of deformation localization pictures corresponding with the respective stages of plastic flow are described. These are shown to be various kinds of self-excited wave processes of plastic flow. The dislocation structure of the material occurring within and in between the nuclei of localized deformation is investigated. The use of the self-excited wave patterns of plastic flow localization as an additional source of information on the mechanical properties of metals and alloys is substantiated.     

Influence of void nucleation on ductile shear fracture at a free surface

An approximate continuum model of a ductile, porous material is used to study the influence of the nucleation and growth of micro-voids on the formation of shear bands and the occurrence of surface shear fracture in a solid subject to plane strain tension. Bifurcation into diffuse modes is analysed for a plane strain tensile specimen described by these constitutive relations, which account for a considerable plastic dilatancy due to void growth and for the possibility of non-normality of the plastic flow law. In particular, bifurcation into surface wave modes and the possible influence of such modes triggering shear bands is investigated. For solids with initial imperfactions such as a surface undulation, a local material inhomogeneity on an inclusion colony, the inception and growth of plastic flow localization is analysed numerically. Both the formation of void-sheets and the final growth of cracks in the shear bands is described numerically. Some special features of shear band development in the solid obeying non-normality are studied by a simple model problem.     

Theoretical and experimental study of energy dissipation in the course of strain localization in iron

Plastic strain localization is studied with the use of a high-sensitivity infrared camera. Plastic strain localization in iron is demonstrated to be accompanied by the emergence of heat waves and their propagation over the sample surface. Constitutive equations that describe the energy balance in the material under plastic strains are derived, and the plastic flow of iron is analyzed. The results of research are compared with the data obtained by infrared scanning. The proposed model of strain localization in the form of soliton-like waves (phase triggering waves) is demonstrated to agree with the kinetics of temperature waves characterizing dissipation inherent in the development of plastic deformation. __________ Translated from Prikladnaya Mekhanika i Tekhnicheskaya Fizika, Vol. 50, No. 1, pp. 153–164, January–February, 2009.     

An experimental study on grain deformation and interactions in an Al-0.5%Mg multicrystal

Heterogeneous plastic deformation behavior of a coarse-grained Al-0.5%Mg multicrystal was investigated experimentally at the individual grain level. A flat uniaxial tensile specimen consisting of a single layer of millimeter-sized grains was deformed quasi-statically up to an axial strain of 15% at room temperature. The initial local crystallographic orientations of the grains and their evolutions after 5, 12, and 15% plastic strains were measured by electron backscattered diffraction pattern analysis in a scanning electron microscope. The local in-plane plastic strains and rigid body rotations of the grains were measured by correlation of digital optical video images of the specimen surface acquired during the tensile test. It is found that both intergranular and intragranular plastic deformation fields in the aluminum multicrystal specimen under uniaxial tension are highly heterogeneous. Single or double sets of slip-plane traces were predominantly observed on the electro-polished surfaces of the millimeter-sized grains after deformation. The active slip systems associated with these observed slip-plane traces were identified based on the grain orientation after deformation, the Schmid factor, and grain interactions in terms of the slip-plane trace morphology at grain boundaries. It is found that the aluminum multicrystal obeys neither the Sachs nor the Taylor polycrystal deformation models but deforms heterogeneously to favor easy slip transmission and accommodation among the grains.     

Micro-experimental study of large plastic deformation for high-purity polycrystalline aluminum

This paper aims at revealing various micro- deformation characteristics, such as crystalline slip and grain boundary slide, which are recorded under scanning electronic microscope for high-purity aluminum tensile specimen at room temperature. These experimental data provide us direct evidence for shear localization near the grain boundary network via multi- directional grain boundary slide. The nonuniform deformation induced in the grain interiors would have decisive effect on the plastic flow and failure of polycrystalline materials. Sponsored by the National Natural Science Foundation of China and the Fok Ying- Tung Education Foundation.     

On neck propagation in amorphous glassy polymers under plane strain tension

Unlike metals, necking in polymers under tension does not lead to further localization of deformation, but to propagation of the neck along the specimen. Finite element analysis is used to numerically study necking and neck propagation in amorphous glassy polymers under plane strain tension during large strain plastic flow. The constitutive model used in the analyses features strain-rate, pressure, and temperature dependent yield, softening immediately after yield and subsequent orientational hardening with further plastic deformation. The latter is associated with distortion of the underlying molecular network structure of the material, and is modelled here by adopting a recently proposed network theory developed for rubber elasticity. Previous studies of necking instabilities have almost invariably employed idealized prismatic specimens; here, we explicitly account for the unavoidable grip sections of test specimens. The effects of initial imperfections, strain softening, orientation hardening, strain-rate as well as of specimen geometry and boundary conditions are discussed. The physical mechanisms for necking and neck propagation, in terms of our constitutive model, are discussed on the basis of a detailed parameter study.     

不同管径氧化钛纳米管层的微动磨损性能

利用阳极氧化法在纯钛表面制备了3组平均内径不同的TiO2纳米管层试样,用扫描电子显微镜、硬度仪和轮廓仪对试样表面形貌、显微硬度、纳米硬度和粗糙度进行测试.在大气环境里,以球/平面接触方式,对摩偶件为超高分子聚乙烯球,采用PLINT高精度液压伺服式微动磨损试验机,分别在4种法向载荷下,对试样进行微动磨损试验.结果表明:随法向载荷的增加,同一摩擦副的摩擦系数降低;TiO2纳米管层的存在降低了钛与UHMWPE之间的摩擦系数,在不同载荷下纳米管层表面的摩擦系数均随管径的增大而增大,但低于无纳米管层的对照组;与UHMWPE对摩,TiO2纳米管层有很好的承载、抗剥离和耐磨性能;摩擦副的主要磨损机理为磨粒磨损、UHMWPE塑变导致的表层材料损失.     

45~#碳钢微动磨损时表面层的微结构特征

研究了45~#碳钢在空气中于室温下微动磨损时表面层的微结构特征,通过光学显微镜和扫描电子显微镜对微动磨损表面及其横断面和磨屑的观察发现,15~#碳钢微动磨损时表面层系由三个特征区组成。讨论了片状氧化物磨屑形成的机理。     

An experimental study of inhomogeneous cyclic plastic deformation of 1045 steel under multiaxial cyclic loading

An experimental study was conducted on the inhomogeneous cyclic plastic deformation of 1045 steel under multiaxial cyclic loading. Thin-walled tubular specimens were used and small strain gages were bonded on the specimen surface to characterize the local deformation. The controlled loading paths included cyclic tension–compression, cyclic torsion, proportional axial-torsion, 90°-out-of-phase axial-torsion, and fully reversed torsion with a constant axial stress. The maximum stress in each experiment was lower than the lower yield stress of the material. It was found that the cyclic plastic deformation within the gage section of the specimen under multiaxial stress state followed the three-stage process that was observed from uniaxial loading, namely, incubation, propagation, and saturation. The plastic deformation was significantly inhomogeneous during the propagation stage, and the inhomogeneity continued through the saturation stage. The duration of each stage and the saturated strains were dependent on the cyclic stress amplitude and the loading path. Multiaxial stress state reduced the incubation stage. With identical equivalent stress magnitude, the nonproportional loading path resulted in the shortest incubation and propagation stages, and the saturated equivalent plastic strain magnitude was the smallest. Although the deformation over the gage section was inhomogeneous, the plastic deformation in a given local area was found to be practically isotropic.     

位移幅值对铜镁合金微动磨损行为的影响

在研制的多功能微动磨损试验机上,开展了不同位移幅值下铜镁合金微动磨损试验,以研究位移幅值对铜镁合金微动磨损行为的影响. 微动过程中记录摩擦系数曲线与F_t-D-N曲线,利用光学显微镜(OM)、扫描电镜(SEM)、能量色散X射线光谱仪(EDS)及三维形貌仪对损伤区域进行了微观分析. 结果显示:随着位移幅值的增加,铜镁合金微动运行状态由部分滑移进入完全滑移,未发现混合滑移状态;部分滑移区中呈现由弹性变形协调逐渐向塑性变形协调转变的趋势. 磨损体积随位移幅值的增加而增加,在完全滑移区中体积损失非常严重. 在弹性变形协调的部分滑移状态下,接触表面损伤轻微,而由塑性变形协调的部分滑移状态下,接触中心出现较大切应力,疲劳裂纹扩展至接触表面导致材料剥落,接触边缘有磨粒磨损和氧化磨损的痕迹. 在完全滑移状态下,接触表面损伤主要为疲劳剥层,磨粒磨损和氧化磨损.      

动车组车轮轮缘塑性变形白层组织分析

本文作者对动车组ER8C车轮轮缘白层的微观组织进行了观察,重点对由于剧烈塑性变形而形成的白层进行了分析和探讨.在光镜下可以观察到白层厚为3~18μm,分布不连续.在扫描电镜下,塑性变形白层主要有两种类型:一种为经塑性变形作用而细化的组织和经动态再结晶作用得到的铁素体纳米晶,后者具有纳米量级的铁素体晶粒.白层内的碳化物数量与塑性变形程度及运行过程中的温升有关,越接近表层未溶碳化物越少、晶粒越小.白层形成机制主要分为两种:一种为反复塑性变形作用的机制,导致铁素体破碎细化同时伴随碳化物碎化溶解;另一种为变形与一定温升综合作用的机制,表层发生动态再结晶而形成超细晶粒组织并伴随碳化物溶解,后者在超细晶粒形成中起主导作用.     

Plastic flow for axisymmetric-tension specimens with necking

Plastic deformation of a tension specimen bounded by a curved surface of revolution is considered. Such a configuration may occur, for example, as a result of necking. The specimen material satisfies the Tresca yield condition and the associated flow rule. Approximate solutions for the stress distribution in the neck were examined in [6]. The extension of notched bars was investigated by numerical and graphic methods in [2, 4]. Below, the problem is solved analytically for a sufficiently smooth neck; a small degree of nonuniformity of the plastic properties is taken into account.     

Inconel 718镍基超合金的空蚀行为研究

采用超声振动空蚀试验机对Inconel 718镍基超合金与316L不锈钢进行空蚀磨损研究. 通过扫描电子显微镜(SEM)、场发射电镜(FESEM)以及高分辨X射线衍射仪对测试样品空蚀磨损表面形貌、微观结构演变和物相进行观察及分析. 结果表明:Inconel 718表现出更优异的抗空蚀磨损性能,其空蚀600 min累计质量损失约为316L的1/3,空蚀孕育期时长为316L不锈钢的2倍左右. 在空蚀孕育期,Inconel 718空蚀损伤首先发生在晶界、孪晶界等界面处,且并未出现明显的塑性变形. 316L在此期间呈现较为明显的塑性变形,空蚀表面起伏波动显著. 在空蚀加速期,Inconel 718质量损失的显著提升是由于空蚀表面微裂纹的扩展导致材料逐渐剥落引起的,316L则是由于空蚀表面大量凹坑的不断形成与合并导致质量损失的增加. Inconel 718空蚀120 min后,观察到空蚀磨损表面有明显的形变孪晶,且与空蚀前的金相形貌相比,形变孪晶有明显增多的趋势.      

Characterization of the High Temperature Strain Partitioning in Duplex Steels

A microgrid technique has been developed for the analysis of the high-temperature micro-scale strain distribution between ferrite and austenite into duplex stainless steels. The local strain is measured by micro-extensometry using square microgrids engraved on flat specimens by electro-lithography. The sample with microgrids on the surface and preliminary imaged with high definition scanning electron microscope (SEM), is inserted in a plane strain compression specimen to be deformed under conditions representative of hot rolling. After deformation, the sample is extracted from the compressed block and the surface is again analyzed by SEM and image processing to determine the strain field. The strain is heterogeneously distributed with a strong localization of the deformation, in the form of shear bands located within the ferrite and at the vicinity of the austenite/ferrite interphase boundaries. These strain maps provide useful informations about the rheology of the phases as well as about the local conditions at the origin of the damage process.     

Heat generation and fracture initiation in a stretched steel plate with a process-induced structural defect

The localization of heat release during deformation of a notched steel plate is studied. It is shown that the source of heat generation in the metal specimen is not the whole region of plastic deformation near the tip of the defect (crack), but only the slip bands occupying the relatively small part of the zone (Chernov-Luders bands), in which the deformation initiates physical and chemical processes. It was found that in the slip bands, the metal temperature increases by several tens of degrees (or more). The deformation of notched specimens is characterized by uneven development of plastic deformation in the volume of the material and a high velocity of heat-wave propagation in the direction of the maximum slip stresses.     

Deformation and failure mechanisms of single crystal superalloy under temperature gradient

The crystallographic constitutive model under temperature gradient is developed and introduced to study the deformation and failure mechanisms of single crystal superalloy. Tensile tests of thin-walled pipe specimen at different temperatures without cooled air flow were carried out. Based on the experimental results, the temperature dependence of constitutive model was studied and the basic parameters of constitutive model were obtained. To investigate the deformation and failure mechanisms, the thin-walled pipe specimen with cooled air flow under temperature gradient were tested. Considered the fluid-solid interface (FSI), a finite element method (FEM) was proposed to simulate the process of tension. In FEM, the activation rate of slip system was defined as the failure law of specimen under temperature gradient. The simulation result was in good agreement with the experiment result. Furthermore, the fracture surface of the specimen was observed by the scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The microstructure revealed that the slip deformation belonged to {1 1 1} crystalplane is a principal failure mechanism of single crystal superalloy under temperature gradient. The results of the SEM also implied that the proposed FEM method can be used to systemically study the deformation and failure behavior of single crystal superalloy cooled blade.     

Plastic Strain Mapping with Sub-micron Resolution Using Digital Image Correlation

Digital image correlation (DIC) of images obtained using scanning electron microscopy has been used to study, quantitatively, the plastic deformation of stainless steel at the microstructural scale. An artificial speckle pattern was generated by the remodelling of a deposited gold layer. A new experimental setup was shown to accelerate the remodelling process and promote the formation of finer nano-scale speckles with sizes ranging 30 nm to 150 nm and of similar spacing. The effects of surface preparation on speckle morphology are discussed. The high density of speckles enabled displacement mapping with resolution of one displacement vector each 0.2?×?0.2 μm² of surface area. It is shown that sub-micron resolution is necessary to capture the plastic deformation associated with the formation of slip bands in stainless steel, which are an important component of the deformation of these materials at the microscale. Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) was used to reconstruct the surface grain boundaries and enabled these deformation features to be linked to the microstructure.     

Hydrogen induced shear localization of the plastic flow in metals and alloys

Hydrogen enhanced localized plasticity (HELP) is a viable mechanism for hydrogen embrittlement supported by experimental observations. According to the HELP mechanism, hydrogen induced premature failures result from hydrogen induced plastic instability which leads to hydrogen assisted localized ductile processes. The objective of this work is to reveal the role of hydrogen in possibly localizing the macroscopic deformation into bands of intense shear using solid mechanics methodology. The hydrogen effect on material deformation is modeled through the hydrogen induced volume dilatation and the reduction in the local flow stress upon hydrogen dissolution into the lattice. Hydrogen in assumed to reside in both normal interstitial lattice sites (NILS) and reversible traps associated with the plastic deformation. The analysis of the plastic deformation and the conditions for plastic flow localization are carried out in plane strain uniaxial tension. For a given initial hydrogen concentration in the unstressed specimen, a critical macroscopic strain is identified at which shear localization commences.     

Heterogeneity of Plastic Flow of Zirconium Alloys with a Parabolic Law of Strain Hardening

The specific features of plastic–strain macrolocalization at the stage of the parabolic law of strain hardening in samples from industrial zirconium–based alloys are considered. It is shown that in predeformed blanks, zones with a different character of plastic–strain localization are formed. It is also shown that the strain–localization macropattern can be used as a characteristic of the susceptibility of a material to further plastic form–changing, for example, upon tube rolling. The sign of fracture of alloys upon plastic deformation is revealed. The scale effect in the formation of localizedplastic–flow zones is shown and studied.