Effect of a fullerene C60 addition on the strength properties of nanocrystalline copper and aluminum under shock-wave loading

The Hugoniot elastic limit and the spall strength of aluminum and copper samples pressed from a mixture of a metallic powder and 2–5 wt % C₆₀ fullerene powder are measured under a shock loading pressure up to 6 GPa and a strain rate of 10⁵ s^?1 by recording and analyzing full wave profiles using a VISAR laser interferometer. It is shown that a 5% C₆₀ fullerene addition to an initial aluminum sample leads to an increase in its Hugoniot elastic limit by an order of magnitude. Mixture copper samples with 2% fullerene also exhibit a multiple increase in the elastic limit as compared to commercial-grade copper. The elastic limits calculated from the wave profiles are 0.82–1.56 GPa for aluminum samples and 1.35–3.46 GPa for copper samples depending on the sample porosity. The spall strength of both aluminum and copper samples with fullerene additions decreases approximately threefold because of the effect of high-hardness fullerene particles, which serve as tensile stress concentrators in a material under dynamic fracture.     

Anomalies in the temperature dependences of the bulk and shear strength of aluminum single crystals in the submicrosecond range

The results of measurements of the dynamic yield stress and the ultimate strength of aluminum single crystals in the temperature range from 15 to 650°C, which is only 10°C lower than the melting point, are presented. The measurements are made on samples under the action of plane shock waves with a pressure up to 5 GPa behind the front and of a duration of ～2×10^?7 s. It is found that the dynamic yield stress anomalously increases, attaining, in the vicinity of the melting point, a value four times as high as that measured at room temperature. The dynamic strength of the single crystals in this temperature range decreases approximately by 40%, a high strength being preserved in the state in which melting during extension is expected.     

Strength and failure of LK7 borosilicate glass under shock compression

The Hugoniot elastic limit (HEL), the spall strength, the failure threshold, and the failure wave velocity in LK7 glass during shock compression are measured. The HEL estimated from the profiles of compression waves of various intensities is 7.1 ± 0.1 GPa. The spall strength exceeds 7 GPa during shock compression in the elastic range and remains high when passing through the HEL. Failure waves form in the stress range from 5.7 to 10.3 ± 0.5 GPa.     

Resistance to deformation and fracture of aluminum AD1 under shock-wave loading at temperatures of 20 and 600°C

The results of measurements of the dynamic elastic limit and spall strength under shock-wave loading of aluminum samples AD1 of thicknesses between 0.5 and 10.0 mm at room temperature and at temperature increased up to 600°C are presented. The anomalous thermal hardening of aluminum under high strain rate has been confirmed. An analysis of the decay of precursors at temperatures of 20 and 600°C has shown that the change in the main mechanism of drag of dislocations occurs at a strain rate equal approximately to 5 × 10³ s⁻¹, which agrees with the results of measurements by the Hopkinson split bar method. The results of measurements of the spall strength in a wide range of strain rates add the previously obtained data and agree with them.     

无钴合金钢的冲击响应实验研究

 利用一级轻气炮作为加载手段,研究了无钴合金钢在3~20 GPa压力区间的冲击响应特性。用激光干涉测速——VISAR记录了双波结构的自由面速度剖面,并利用常压下的弹性纵波速度近似替代低压冲击下的弹性先驱波速度,确定了无钴合金钢的Hugoniot关系。根据自由面速度反映的层裂信息,给出了无钴合金钢的Hugoniot弹性极限、层裂强度以及层裂片厚度等动态力学参数。     

Temperature dependence of spall strength and the effect of anomalous melting temperatures in shock-wave loading

The effects of temperature anomalies in materials subjected to the action of shock waves are studied. The spall failure of aluminum single crystals and polycrystals at various temperatures was experimentally studied in [1]. An analysis of the experimental data for polycrystalline aluminum shows that the breaking strength only weakly changes with temperature when it increases from room temperature to 90% of the melting temperature and, then, drops sharply to zero with a further increase in the temperature. For aluminum single crystals, the effect of anomalously high temperatures was experimentally detected; i.e., their strength remained high in the state where melting was expected during tension. The criterion of incubation time of failure is used to obtain an analytical expression for the temperature dependence of the spall strength of the materials. A new melting criterion, which relates the instant of a phase transition to the melting incubation period, is introduced. This criterion allows one to naturally explain the effect of anomalously high melting temperatures detected during the pulsed action.     

材料预加热冲击压缩实验技术及高温下不锈钢的动态响应

 建立了用于轻气炮上冲击压缩实验的材料预加热系统及相关实验技术。介绍这一系统的原理、构造及操作。利用这一系统，在加载幅度8 GPa的恒定载荷下，得到了初始温度300～980 K范围内HR-2抗氢不锈钢的动态响应特性，包括层裂强度、Hugoniot弹性极限、卸载声速及它们随温度的变化规律。     

强激光加载铝材料动态损伤特性及其微介观结构观测

在神光-Ⅱ装置上利用强激光加载铝材料进行高应变率（高于106 s-1）层裂实验,研究不同初始温度下高纯铝材料的动态损伤特性。采用任意反射面速度干涉仪测量样品自由面速度剖面,由自由面速度剖面计算纯铝样品层裂强度与屈服应力。结果表明:随着温度升高,材料层裂强度减小,屈服应力增大。对激光加载前后样品进行金相分析,观察不同初始温度下纯铝材料的微介观结构变化及其损伤特性。结果表明：随着温度升高,样品晶粒尺度缓慢增大,但在873 K（近熔点）时晶粒尺度急剧增加;层裂面附近小孔洞数目较多,孔洞尺寸也较大,而远离层裂面处,孔洞数目相对较少,且尺寸也较小;材料的断裂方式随温度升高由沿晶断裂为主逐渐变为穿晶断裂为主。     

强激光加载铝材料动态损伤特性及其微介观结构观测

在神光-Ⅱ装置上利用强激光加载铝材料进行高应变率(高于106s-1)层裂实验,研究不同初始温度下高纯铝材料的动态损伤特性。采用任意反射面速度干涉仪测量样品自由面速度剖面,由自由面速度剖面计算纯铝样品层裂强度与屈服应力。结果表明:随着温度升高,材料层裂强度减小,屈服应力增大。对激光加载前后样品进行金相分析,观察不同初始温度下纯铝材料的微介观结构变化及其损伤特性。结果表明:随着温度升高,样品晶粒尺度缓慢增大,但在873K(近熔点)时晶粒尺度急剧增加;层裂面附近小孔洞数目较多,孔洞尺寸也较大,而远离层裂面处,孔洞数目相对较少,且尺寸也较小;材料的断裂方式随温度升高由沿晶断裂为主逐渐变为穿晶断裂为主。     

Shock-wave compression of x-cut quartz as determined by electrical response measurements

The mechanical response of x-cut quartz in the vicinity of the Hugoniot elastic limit is determined from measurements of the piezoelectric current from samples impact loaded from 26 to 130 kbar. The Hugoniot elastic limit is determined to be 60_?1·5⁺³ kbar at a compression of 0·066_?0·002^+0·004 This Hugoniot elastic limit corresponds to a shear strength of 5·5 per cent of the C₄₄ shear modulus. For stresses well above the Hugoniot elastic limit the electrical current measurements show that the material exhibits a substantial reduction of shear strength. The pressure derivative of the bulk modulus is determined to be 4·5, substantially less than the ultrasonic value. The experimental records show evidence for a time delay for reduction of shear strength which varies from about 10^?7 sec immediately above the 60 kbar Hugoniot elastic limit to about 10^?8 sec for stresses well above the Hugoniot elastic limit. The measurements also show stress relaxation below the Hugoniot elastic limit between 40 and 60 kbar.     

Influence of the reversible α–ε phase transition and preliminary shock compression on the spall strength of armco iron

Full wave profiles are used to determine the Hugoniot elastic limit and the spall strength of armco iron samples with an as-received structure and the samples recovered after preliminary loading by plane shock waves with an amplitude of 8, 17, and 35 GPa. The measurements are performed at a shock compression pressure below and above the polymorphic a–e transition pressure. Metallographic analysis of the structure of armco iron shows that a developed twinned structure forms inside grains in the samples subjected to preliminary compression and recovered and that the twin concentration and size increase with the shock compression pressure. The spall strength of armco iron under shock loading below the phase transition pressure increases by approximately 10% due to its preliminary deformation twinning at the maximum shock compression pressure. The spallation of samples with various structures at a shock compression pressure above the phase transition proceeds at almost the same tensile stresses. The polymorphic transition in armco iron weakly affects its strength characteristics.     

The Influence of the Cobalt Content on the Strength Properties of Tungsten Carbide Ceramics under Dynamic Loads

Based on the registration and analysis of the full wave profiles, the Hugoniot elastic limit and spall strength of ceramics based on tungsten carbide with different cobalt content are measured. We also study the influence of the cobalt content on the mechanical characteristics of tungsten carbide such as hardness, fracture strength, Young’s modulus, shear modulus, and sound velocity. It is shown that in the process of spalling, the failure stresses grow and the dynamic elastic limit decreases almost linearly within the scatter of their values with growing cobalt content; moreover, the value of the Hugoniot elastic limit is abruptly practically halved as the cobalt content grows from 0 to 2 wt %.     

High strain rate deformation and fracture of the magnesium alloy Ma2-1 under shock wave loading

This paper presents the results of measurements of the dynamic elastic limit and spall strength under shock wave loading of specimens of the magnesium alloy Ma2-1 with a thickness ranging from 0.25 to 10 mm at normal and elevated (to 550°C) temperatures. From the results of measurements of the decay of the elastic precursor of a shock compression wave, it has been found that the plastic strain rate behind the front of the elastic precursor decreases from 2 × 10⁵ s^?1 at a distance of 0.25 mm to 10³ s^?1 at a distance of 10 mm. The plastic strain rate in a shock wave is one order of magnitude higher than that in the elastic precursor at the same value of the shear stress. The spall strength of the alloy decreases as the solidus temperature is approached.     

The Effect of Small Additions of Carbon Nanotubes on the Mechanical Properties of Epoxy Polymers under Static and Dynamic Loads

The results of measurements of the mechanical characteristics of cured epoxy composites containing small and ultrasmall additions of single-walled carbon nanotubes in the concentration range from 0 to 0.133 wt % under static and dynamic loads are presented. Static measurements of strength characteristics have been carried out under standard test conditions. Measurements of the Hugoniot elastic limit and spall strength were performed under a shock wave loading of the samples at a deformation rate of (0.8–1.5) ß 10⁵ s^-1 before the fracture using explosive devices by recording and subsequent analyzing the evolution of the full wave profiles. It has been shown that agglomerates of nanotubes present in the structure of the composites after curing cause a significant scatter of the measured strength parameters, both in the static and in the dynamic test modes. However, the effects of carbon nanotube additions in the studied concentration interval on the physical and mechanical characteristics of the parameters were not revealed for both types of loading.     

Dislocation nucleation in shocked fcc solids: effects of temperature and preexisting voids

Quantitative behaviors of shock-induced dislocation nucleation are investigated by means of molecular dynamics simulations on fcc Lennard-Jones solids: a model argon. In perfect crystals, it is found that the Hugoniot elastic limit (HEL) is a linearly decreasing function of temperature: from near-zero to melting temperatures. In a defective crystal with a void, dislocations are found to nucleate on the void surface. Also, HEL drastically decreases to 15% of the perfect crystal when the void radius is 3.4 nanometers. The decrease of HEL becomes larger as the void radius increases, but HEL becomes insensitive to temperature.     

Evolution of shock waves in SiC ceramic

The evolution of a shock compression wave in SiC ceramic is measured for determining the possible contribution of relaxation processes to the high-rate straining. No appreciable decay of the elastic precursor and other features of stress relaxation are revealed when the sample thickness changes from 0.5 to 8.3 mm, and the evolution of the compression wave corresponds to a simple wave. The measured values of the Hugoniot elastic limit (σ_HEL = 8.72 ± 0.17 GPa) and spall strength (σ_sp = 0.50–0.62 GPa) with allowance for the density of the ceramic are in conformity with the available data.     

Decomposition behavior and properties of Sn-9Zn-1Bi lead-free solder alloy with copper content

Copper was chosen as quaternary additions in the range of 1–5 wt% to the ternary alloy Sn-9Zn-1Bi lead-free solder alloy. X-ray diffraction analysis, scanning electron microscopy and differential thermal analysis have been carried out. Resistivity, Vickers microhardness and yield strength have been measured. The results showed that formation of Cu-Sn intermetallic compounds takes place due to additions of Cu, which affected the electrical resistivity and improved mechanical properties of this alloy. Also, addition of copper upto 2 wt% caused grain refinement and decreased the melting point of this alloy by 2 °C.     

Effect of Temperature and Comonomer Content on Thermal Behavior and Crystallization Property of the Propylene–Ethylene Random Copolymers

The effects of ethylene units content and crystallization temperature on the conformations, and the thermal and crystallization behavior were investigated by a combination of Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, wide angle X-ray diffraction (WAXD), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The characterization of FTIR spectroscopy proves that the longer helical conformation sequences of the propylene–ethylene random (PER) samples decrease, whereas the shorter helical conformation sequences increase with the increase in ethylene units content. The increase of the shorter helical conformation sequences is favorable for the formation of the γ-phase in the crystals. A group of broad endothermic peaks can be seen clearly in the DSC curves of PER copolymers, which may be associated with the melting of mixtures of the α- and γ-forms in the crystals. The melting point, crystallization temperature, and crystallinity degree of the PER copolymers decrease with the increase in ethylene units contents. Three typical melting peaks of the PER copolymers crystallized isothermally between 80°C and 130°C were observed. The two higher melting peaks result from melting of the α- and γ-phase in the crystals, whereas the materials crystallized on quenching give the lowest peak. The WAXD results confirm that the PER copolymers crystallize from the melt, as mixtures of α and γ forms, in a wide temperature range. The critical number ζ_lim of the crystallizable units for the α-form increases with the increase in crystallization temperature for PER copolymers, which is favorable for the formation of the γ phases. The amount of γ-form increases with the increase in crystallization temperature at the expense of its α component, then reaches a maximum value at the crystallization temperature of 115°C, and finally decreases with further increase in the crystallization temperature.     

D6A、921和45钢的动态破坏与低压冲击特性

 通过对称碰撞研究了D6A、921和45钢的动态损伤与破坏行为。利用自由面速度的双波结构，结合材料在常压下的弹性纵波声速，确定了三种钢的低压Hugoniot关系，同时给出了三种钢的弹性Hugoniot屈服极限以及层裂强度。但是发现，屈服极限和层裂强度的材料分散性明显，在其影响下，层裂强度对加载幅度以及应变率的依赖性得不到体现，从而在其不确定度范围内，可将层裂强度看成一个常数。提出了一个唯象的损伤演化方程，在此基础上，对实验结果进行了部分数值模拟，数值模拟给出的层裂强度远大于近似解析模型的计算结果，两者之间的差异有待进一步研究。     

Acoustic anomalies and relaxation dynamics of relaxor ferroelectric Na1/2Bi1/2TiO3 single crystals studied by using Brillouin spectroscopy

Acoustic anomalies of relaxor ferroelectric Na_1/2Bi_1/2TiO₃ single crystals were investigated over a wide temperature range from −196 °C to 900 °C by using Brillouin spectroscopy. The longitudinal sound velocity, the acoustic absorption coefficient and the elastic constant C₁₁ were determined for the acoustic phonon mode propagating in the [100] direction. Two acoustic anomalies, weaker ones at the cubic-tetragonal phase transition temperature of ~540 °C and more pronounced ones at temperatures near 315 °C near the dielectric maximum temperature, were investigated and discussed in relation with the relevant order parameters coupled to the acoustic waves. The relaxation dynamics in the cubic phase were studied based on the flattening of the mode frequency and the half width, which was observed for the first time, and a modified Arrhenius law.