Insight into the Reaction Mechanism of α‐Amino Phosphonate Synthesis Using Succinic Acid as a Catalyst: Computational Kinetic Approach

The reaction mechanism in the synthesis of particular α‐amino phosphonates from 4‐methyl benzaldehyde, aniline, and trimethyl phosphite in the presence of succinic acid is theoretically investigated. The profile of the potential energy surface is constructed at both HF /6‐31 + G(d,p) and B3LYP /6‐31 + G(d,p) levels of theory for evaluating all the steps involved in the reaction mechanism. In order to investigate the effect of the structure on reactivity, some para ‐substituted benzaldehydes are subjected to kinetic examination. The overall reaction in the presence of electron‐withdrawing groups is thermodynamically much more favorable than in the presence of the electron‐donating groups; similarly, the reaction is kinetically more favorable and much easier in the presence of electron‐withdrawing groups. Moreover, step 2 (imine formation) is recognized as the rate‐determining step at both levels of theory. Also, step 1 is diffusion‐controlled with both electron‐withdrawing and electron‐donating groups, while the other steps are chemically controlled in the reaction mechanism.     

Theoretical study on the selectivity of asymmetric sulfur ylide epoxidation reaction

[structure: see text] We report the first theoretical studies on the asymmetric sulfonium ylide epoxidation reaction using a chiral sulfide that successfully reproduces the experimentally determined high enantiomeric excess. Calculations at the DFT level suggest that the transition states for the addition of the sulfonium ylide to benzaldehyde have energies which account for the observed enantioselectivity.     

环上取代基对苯乙酮和苯甲醛缩合反应的影响

苯乙酮衍生物与苯甲醛衍生物缩合制备各种查尔酮，报道了４种苯乙酮衍生物与９种苯甲醛之间相互缩合的结果，讨论了环上取代基对缩合反应的影响。苯甲醛环上取代基，除羟基外无论是吸电子基还是给电子基对缩合反应收率影响都不大；羟基处于醛基邻位和对位的苯甲醛与几种苯乙酮衍生物的缩合，多数没有得到预期的产物，或收率极低；苯乙酮环上的羟基对缩合反应影响很大，羟基超多，缩合越困难。提出了一种假设，试图解释羟基对缩合反应     

Detection and Reaction of Oxaphosphetanes Derived from Benzaldehyde and 1-Adamantylmethylidene Ylide

The Wittig reaction of (1-adamantylmethylidene)triphenylphosphorane (Ph(3)P=CH(1-Ad)) with benzaldehyde was investigated, and the results were compared with those of other ylides. The substituent effect in the reaction of the ylide with benzaldehydes was determined by competition experiments, which gave a Hammett rho value of 3.2. The rho value is much larger than those reported for analogous reactions of Ph(3)P=CH(CH(2))(2)CH(3) (rho = 0.20) and Ph(3)P=CH(CH(3))(2) (rho = 0.59), indicating that the reaction mechanism differs for Ph(3)P=CH(1-Ad) and the other ylides. The cis/trans ratio of the product alkene is 74/26 for the reaction with the parent benzaldehyde and highly depends on the position of the substituent; ortho substituted benzaldehydes gave the trans alkenes up to 90%. Monitoring the reaction by means of (31)P NMR revealed that both cis and trans oxaphosphetane intermediates were formed and that the formation and decomposition of the cis oxaphosphetane are 7-12 times faster than those of the trans oxaphosphetane. From the comparison of the reaction of Ph(3)P=CH(1-Ad) + benzaldehyde with those of Ph(3)P=CH(CH(2))(2)CH(3) + benzaldehyde and benzophenone, and Ph(3)P=CH(CH(3))(2) + benzophenone, it was concluded that all the reactions with these nonstabilized ylides proceed via an electron-transfer mechanism and that the rate-determining step changes from the electron transfer step to that of radical combination when the substrate or ylide becomes more sterically demanding.     

Divergent Reactivity of Homologue ortho‐Allenylbenzaldehydes Controlled by the Tether Length: Chromone versus Chromene Formation

The divergent behavior of two homologue allenals, namely, 2‐(buta‐2,3‐dienyloxy)‐ and 2‐(propa‐1,2‐dienyloxy)benzaldehydes, as cyclization substrates is described. 2‐(Buta‐2,3‐dienyloxy)benzaldehydes suffers a formal allenic carbocyclization reaction to afford chromenes, whereas 2‐(propa‐1,2‐dienyloxy)benzaldehydes react to yield chromones. The formation of chromenes is strictly a formal hydroarylation process divided into two parts, namely, allenic Claisen‐type rearrangement and oxycyclization. An unknown N‐heterocyclic carbene (NHC)‐catalyzed allenic hydroacylation reaction must be invoked to account for the preparation of chromones. ortho‐Allenylbenzaldehydes bearing either electron‐donating substituents or electron‐withdrawing substituents worked well to afford both the hydroarylation and hydroacylation products. This unexpected difference in reactivity can be rationalized by means of density functional theory calculations.     

Enantio- and diastereoselectivities in chiral sulfur ylide promoted asymmetric aziridination reactions

Density functional theory investigation on the factors controlling enantio- and diastereoselection in asymmetric aziridination reaction by the addition of chiral bicyclic sulfur ylides to substituted aldimines is presented. High levels of enantioselection are predicted toward the formation of (2S,3S)-cis and (2R,3S)-trans aziridines by the addition of stabilized ylide (R = COMe) respectively to SO2Me and CO2Me protected aldimines. Similarly, high %ee is predicted for the formation of (2S,3R)-cis aziridines from semistabilized (R = Ph) ylide. Moderate to high levels of diastereoselectivity is noticed as well. The present study highlights that a correct prediction on extent of enantioselection requires the knowledge of the activation barriers for elementary steps beyond the initial addition step. In the case of stabilized ylides the ring-closure (or elimination of sulfur compound) is found to be crucial in controlling enantio- and diastereoselection. A cumulative effect of electronic as well as other weak interactions is identified as factors contributing to the relative energies of transition states leading to enantio- and diastereomeric products for the stabilized ylide addition to aldimines. On the contrary, steric control appears quite dominant with semistabilized ylide addition. With the smallest substituent on ylide (R = Me), high enantioselectivity is predicted for the formation of (2R,3R)-trans aziridines although the %de in this case is found to be very low.     

Ab initio study of 4-monosubstituted pyrimidines in ground and excited n → π* states

Ab initio SCF and SCF -CI calculations have been performed to investigate substituent effects on ground- and excited-state properties of 4-R-pyrimidines, and to compare these with substituent effects in 2- and 4-R-pyridines, with R including the π donating and σ withdrawing groups CH₃, NH₂, OH, F, and C₂H₃ and the σ and π electron-withdrawing groups CHO and CN. Substitution leads to significant changes in the internal angles of the pyrimidine ring, which are independent of the nature of the substituent. The geometry of the pyrimidine ring is more sensitive to substitution in the 4 position than the pyridine ring geometry is to substitution in either the 2 or the 4 position. The isodesmic reaction energies for substituent transfer from the 4 position of pyrimidine to the 2 or 4 position of pyridine indicate that all R groups except CN have a relative stabilizing effect in pyrimidine. The presence of a π donating group leads to an increase in the n→π* transition energy of 4-R-pyrimidines, while the π withdrawing group CN leads to a decrease in the transition energy relative to pyrimidine. Orbital energy differences and virtual excitation energies tend to correlate with n→π* transition energies of 4-R-pyrimidines with saturated R groups, but such correlations are masked by π conjugation, n orbital interaction, and configurational mixing when the unsaturated groups C₂H₃, CHO, and CN are present. The electronic effects of a π donating group are stronger when the group is bonded to pyrimidine than to pyridine, but those of a π withdrawing group are weaker when the group is bonded to pyrimidine.     

Density functional theory investigations on sulfur ylide promoted cyclopropanation reactions: insights on mechanism and diastereoselection issues

The mechanism and diastereoselectivity of synthetically useful sulfur ylide promoted cyclopropanation reactions have been studied using the density functional theory method. Addition of different substituted ylides (Me2S+CH-R) to enone ((E)-pent-3-en-2-one, MeHC=CH-COMe) has been investigated. The nature of the substituent on the ylidic carbon brings about subtle changes in the reaction profile. The stabilized (R=COMe) and semistabilized (R=Ph) ylides follow a cisoid addition mode, leading to 1,2-trans and 1,2-cis cyclopropanes, respectively, via syn and anti betaine intermediates. The simplest and highly reactive model ylide (R=H) prefers a transoid addition mode. Diastereoselectivity is controlled by the barrier for cisoid-transoid rotation in the case of stabilized ylides, whereas the initial electrophilic addition is found to be the diastereoselectivity-determining step for semistabilized ylides. High selectivity toward trans cyclopropanes with stabilized ylides are predicted on the basis of the relative activation energies of diastereomeric torsional transition states. The energy differences between these transition states could be rationalized with the help of weak intramolecular as well as other stereoelectronic interactions.     

炔丙型硫Ylide环丙烷化反应及其立体选择性

炔丙型硫Ylide与丙烯酸酯的反应是一个多反应竞争的复杂反应, 通常环丙烷化产物收率很低. 本文通过对反应底物的优化, 成功获得了高收率、高选择性的反式环丙烷化产物. 同时利用Gaussian 03程序, 选择密度泛函BHHLYP方法, 6-31G**基组对反应路径及过渡态模型进行了计算, 进而采用密度泛函理论中的B3LYP方法, 选择6-31G**基组, 对顺、反式产物的热稳定性进行了分析, 明确了该反应的高非对映选择性是由过渡态的能量差异和产物的热稳定性两个因素共同决定的, 而过渡态的能量差异可以归于分子内弱的立体电子效应的不同.     

取代基对有机金属钽化合物中分子内α-H转移势垒的影响

运用B3LYP方法研究了有机钽化合物中分子内α-氢转移反应, 探讨了不同取代基对α-氢转移反应势垒的影响. 确定了反应物、过渡态和产物的几何构型和反应势垒. 结果表明, 过渡金属钽有机化合物中, 发生α-氢转移的碳原子在过渡态中采用sp2杂化. 取代基对α-氢转移势垒的影响取决于取代基对过渡态中碳原子的未参与杂化的pz轨道上单电子的离域作用. Ta(CH3)4CH(SiMe3)2的α-氢转移反应势垒最低.     

四唑衍生物异构化反应的理论研究

运用ＭＮＤＯＭＯ法对五种四唑衍生物的互变异构反应进行了理论计算,结果表明,过渡态的几何构型主要由迁移基团所决定,迁移基团的电性对反应速度影响很大,反应活化能与反应物中断裂键的键级和迁移基轩处净民荷之间均存在良好的线性关系,二取代基的性质均对反应平衡常数产生影响。     

锡-铟促进和微波辐射辅助下醛和炔丙基溴的炔丙基化反应

A rapid and regioselective preparation of homopropargyl alcohols was reported. In the presence of SnCl2C6HsMe3NBr and microwave irradiation, the mixture of tin-indium and propargyl bromide reacted quickly with aldehydes in aqueous media to produce the homopropargyl alcohols exclusively in high yields. For benzaldehydes bearing different substituents, electronic effect of the substituents affected the reaction, the electron-withdrawing groups promoting the reaction and the electron-donating groups impeding the reaction. The reactions of benzaldehydes bearing an ortho substituent group on the phenyl ring with propargyl bromide may yield a mixture of regioisomers （homopropargyl and homoallenyl alcohols） or a single homoallenic alcohol due to the steric effect.     

Comparison of density functionals for reactions of sulfur ylides with aldehydes and olefins

The reactions of a model sulfur ylide with formaldehyde and 1,1-dicianoethylene, leading to the formation of an epoxyde and a cyclopropane, respectively, have been studied using different computational methods, and the results have been compared to those obtained with the CBS-QB3 method. The second step of these reactions presents transition states similar to that of an SN2 reaction. Depending on the degree of electron delocalization at the transition state, a different amount of exact exchange is necessary in the exchange functional to obtain accurate energy barriers. This amount is larger for the reaction of formaldehyde, in which the transition state is more delocalized, than for the reaction of 1,1-dicianoethylene. Similar results have been obtained for symmetric and non-symmetric SN2 reactions. The calculation of the reaction path has shown that the error relative to CBS-QB3 tends to increase when approaching the transition state. Among the different computational methods, PBE1PBE is the one to provide the most accurate energy barriers and reaction energies, whereas BB1K leads to the best results for the reaction path before the transition state.     

A mndo study of olefin epoxidation by peroxyacids. : Hammond effects on the computed transition structures

MNDO calculations of potential energy surfaces for the interaction between peroxyformic acid and ethylene or substituted ethylenes do not support the electrophilic mechanism preferred in the interpretation of this reaction. While the calculated interaction between neutral molecules of olefin and peroxyformic acid is repulsive over the entire range of studied reaction coordinates, protonated peroxyformic acid is predicted capable of addition to olefin, but with an activation energy of 39 kcal/mol. Peroxyformate anions, according to the MNDO calculations, should add readily to olefins. Electron withdrawing subntituents in the latter have the effect that adducts are formed without activation energy, while ethylene or olefins with donor substituents are predicted to react in a two-step mechanism, the first step being the formation of metastable intermediates with activation energies of 16 – 20 kcal/mol. The rate determining step of the reaction is the epoxide ring closure. She activation energies predicted for this step increase with the electron withdrawing capacity of substituents in line with the observed negative slopes of Hammett-like relationships. The nucleophilic mechanism suggested by the present calculations does not conflict with observed stereo-specificity of this reaction. Olefin substituents cause Hammond effects on the predicted transition structures, which are particularly pronounced on those geometrical parameters having the dominating contributions in the corresponding transition vectors. These predictions are in line with qualitative reaction surface models, but in contrast with VB considerations.     

Substituent Effect on the π Linkers in Triphenylamine Dyes for Sensitized Solar Cells: A DFT/TDDFT Study

A series of metal‐free organic donor–π bridge–acceptor dyes are studied computationally using density functional theory (DFT) and time‐dependent DFT (TDDFT) approaches to explore their potential performances in dye‐sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). Taking triphenylamine (TPA) and cyanoacrylic acid moieties as donor and acceptor units, respectively, the effects of different substituents of the π linkers in the TPA‐based dyes on the energy conversion efficiency of the DSSCs are theoretically evaluated through optimized geometries, charge distributions, electronic structures, simulated absorption spectra, and free energies of injection. The results show that the molecular orbital energy levels and electron‐injection driving forces of the TPA dyes can be tuned by the introduction of substituents with different electron‐withdrawing or ‐donating abilities. The electron‐withdrawing substituent always lowers the energies of both frontier orbitals, while the electron‐donating one heightens them simultaneously. The efficiency trend of these TPA derivatives as sensitizers in DSSCs is also predicted by analyzing the light‐harvesting efficiencies and the free energies of injection. The following substituents are shown to increase the efficiency of the dye: OMe, OEt, OHe, and OH.     

水助酮和烯醇类化合物互变异构反应机理的理论研究

采用MP2方法研究了水助MeC(＝O)(CH2R)与MeC(OH)(＝CHR)之间的异构化反应, 确定了相应的过渡态结构并计算了反应势垒. 研究结果表明, 常温下MeC(＝O)(CH2R)与MeC(OH)(＝CHR)之间的异构化反应容易通过2个水分子的参与而实现. 研究结果还表明, 发生质子转移的碳原子在过渡态中采取近sp3杂化. 凡是能够稳定该sp3轨道上的孤对电子的取代基, 都将使质子转移反应的势垒降低, 使异构化反应易于进行.     

A study of substituent effects on the enantioselective trimethylsilylcyanation of benzaldehyde catalyzed by chiral Schiff base–titanium(IV) complexes

New chiral Schiff base ligands derived from tert-butyl salicylaldehydes bearing electron withdrawing and donating groups were synthesized by reaction with various substituted chiral amino alcohols. These ligands were used with titanium tetraisopropoxide to study steric and electronic effects on the enantioselectivity of the trimethylsilylcyanation of benzaldehyde. ZINDO calculations are in agreement with the experimental results on the intermediate complexes, which indicate that the steric effects of the substituents are more important than the electronic ones.     

分子形貌所指示的羟基卡宾及其衍生物的质子转移反应

分子形貌(Molecular face, MF)定义分子的内禀电子转折边界面, 同时在其上计算并描绘出前沿电子密度(MFED). MF不仅能显示分子的形状和大小, 还能够指示分子的化学反应性. 应用M06-2X/6-311++G(d,p)理论方法, 对单线态和三线态羟基卡宾分子及其衍生物的质子化反应进行研究并计算了这些反应的活化能. 结果表明, 吸电性和供电性较强的取代基,均使单线态反应活化能增大,只有吸电性较强的─CN才能使三线态反应活化能增大. 应用分子形貌理论研究了上述反应, 不仅展示出分子的形貌变化、 与反应位点的关联, 以及有关物理量的变化倾向, 而且还定量地显示出, 单线态羟基卡宾及其衍生物分子边界面上前沿电子密度极大值与极小值的差值, 与其质子转移反应的活化能之间存在线性相关.     

Base‐Mediated O‐Arylation of Alcohols and Phenols by Triarylsulfonium Triflates

A mild and efficient protocol for O‐arylation of alcohols and phenols (ROH) by triarylsulfonium triflates was developed under transition‐metal‐free conditions. Various alcohols, including primary, secondary and tertiary, and phenols bearing either electron‐donating or electron‐withdrawing groups on the aryl rings were smoothly converted to form the corresponding aromatic ethers in moderate to excellent yields. The reactions were conducted at 50 or 80 °C for 24 h in the presence of a certain base and showed good functional group tolerance. The base‐mediated arylation with asymmetric triarylsulfonium salts could selectively transfer the aryl groups of sulfoniums to ROH, depending on their inherent electronic nature. The mechanistic studies revealed that the reaction might proceed through the nucleophilic attack of the in situ formed alkoxy or phenoxy anions at the aromatic carbon atoms of the C?S bonds of triarylsulfonium cations to furnish the target products.     

Acid-catalyzed intramolecular ring-opening reactions of cyclopropanated oxabenzonorbornadienes with alcohol nucleophiles

An investigation of intramolecular ring-opening reactions of various cyclopropanated oxabenzonorbornadienes (CPOBDs) with alcohol nucleophiles is reported, which forms two regioisomeric products in good yields. The effect of various tether lengths was explored, wherein increasing the alcohol tether length to 4 or 5 carbons exclusively generated Type 3 products in good yield, while C-1-hydroxymethyl substituted CPOBD formed a 1,3,5-cycloheptatriene derivative in excellent yield. Electron donating arene and electron withdrawing C-5-bridgehead substituents formed Type 3 major products, whereas electron withdrawing arenes and electron donating C-5 substituents preferentially afforded Type 2 compounds. A mechanism is also proposed for the formation of both regioisomeric products.