A chemical shock tube driven by detonation

A chemical shock tube driven by a detonation driver is described in the present paper. This shock tube can produce a single controlled high-temperature pulse for studies of gas-phase reaction kinetics, but the difficulty associated with the timing for the rupture of diaphragms in the conventional chemical shock tube is overcome, because the detonation wave in the driver section can be predicted correctly and shows a good repeatability. In addition, this shock tube is capable of providing higher temperature conditions for the test gas than the conventional high-pressure shock tube, owing to the inherently high-driving capability of the detonation driver. The feasibility of this shock tube is examined by numerical simulations and preliminary experiments.     

Experimental and numerical studies of rotational relaxation behind a strong shock wave in air

This paper describes the experimental and numerical investigations of unknown characteristics of the rotational nonequilibrium phenomena behind a strong shock wave in air. Experiments were carried out using a piston-driven shock tube with helium as driving gas and air as driven (test) gas, operated as a two-stage shock tube. In the experiments, emission spectra of NO were measured to evaluate the rotational temperature behind a strong shock wave. The numerical calculations use the computational code for the thermal and chemical nonequilibrium flow behind a strong shock wave developed by the present author's group, where 11 chemical species (N, O, NO, N, O, N, O, NO, N, O, e) and 48 chemical reactions of high-temperature air are considered. The thermal nonequilibrium is expressed by introducing an 8 temperature model composed of translational temperature, rotational and vibrational temperatures for N, O, NO, and electron temperature. The coupling of a rotation, vibration and dissociation (CRVD) model was incorporated to take sufficiently into account the rotational nonequilibrium. The calculations were conducted for the same conditions as the experimental ones. From the calculated flow properties, emission spectra were re-constructed using the code for computing spectra of high temperature air “SPRADIAN”. Furthermore, rotational and vibrational temperatures of NO (0,1) were determined from a curve fitting method and compared with the computed results. Received 12 September 2001 / Accepted 18 February 2002     

Measurements of non-equilibrium and equilibrium temperature behind a strong shock wave in simulated martian atmosphere

Non-equilibrium radiation measurements behind strong shock wave for simulated Martian atmosphere are presented in this paper. The shock wave is established in a hydrogen oxygen combustion driven shock tube. Timeresolved spectra of the Δv = 0 sequence of the B ²Σ⁺ → X ²Σ⁺ electronic transition of CN have been observed through optical emission spectroscopy (OES). A new method, which is based on fitting high resolution spectrum for rotational and vibrational temperatures measurement, is proposed to diagnose temperature distribution behind the shock wave. It is estimated that the current scheme has the maximum deviation less than 8% (1σ) for vibrational temperature measurement through detailed analysis of the influence of the uncertainties of spectroscopic constants and spectral resolution. Radiation structure of the shock layer, including induction, relaxation and equilibrium process, and corresponding rotational and vibrational temperatures are obtained through time gating OES diagnostics with sub-microsecond temporal resolution. The present extensive results will strongly benefit the reaction rate estimation and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) code validation in high enthalpy Mars reentry chemistry.     

Determination of ignition delay times of different hydrocarbons in a new high pressure shock tube

The impending scarcity of fossil fuel in the future requires continued development in hydrocarbon combustion research. Biofuels offer a promising alternative to traditional fossil fuel-based combustion. To optimize engine design for biofuels, adequate combustion characteristics for new fuels have to be known. In this study, a new high pressure stainless steel shock tube for measuring ignition delay times is presented. When compared with other shock tubes for investigating ignition delays, the new tube provides superior maximum working pressures and geometric properties. Shock tube performance is determined by reference experiments with air as driven gas. These experiments allow to determine the available test time and the influence of shock attenuation. Owing to the large inner diameter of the shock tube, shock attenuation is <1% as it is typical for low pressure shock tubes. However, contrast to typical low pressure shock tubes, non-diluted fuel–air mixtures at high pressures can be investigated in the new shock tube due to the high allowable working pressure. First experiments concerning the ignition delay time have been performed with methane and n-heptane. The results of these experiments show a good agreement to literature data. As a first biofuel ethanol has been investigated at elevated pressures up to 40 bar.     

Rotational and vibrational temperature measurements using CARS in a hypervelocity shock layer flow and comparisons with CFD calculations

Broadband single pulse coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) experiments employing a folded-box phase-matching geometry in a pulsed hypervelocity blunt body flow are presented. Rovibrational spectra of molecular nitrogen, produced in the freestream and within the shock layer at moderately high enthalpy (8.4 MJ/kg), are examined. Difficulties peculiar to the application of a single pulse optical technique to a high enthalpy pulsed flow facility are discussed and measurements of flow temperatures are presented. Theoretically calculated values for temperatures based upon algorithms used to determine freestream and shock layer conditions agree well with experimental measurements using the CARS technique. The measurements indicate that thermal non-equilibrium conditions exist within the freestream, and that near thermal equilibrium exists at the point of measurement within the shock layer. The comparison between the experiment and theory in the shock layer is improved by using the measured freestream temperatures as input to the shock layer computations.     

Shock tube investigation of hydrodynamic issues related to inertial confinement fusion

A shock tube investigation of two hydrodynamic issues related to inertial confinement fusion (ICF) is undertaken. ICF is a promising source of energy for the future. There has been a considerable increase in the interest in ICF with the development of the National Ignition Facility (NIF). However, much remains to be investigated before a useful yield is obtained from a fusion reaction for power generation. The physics involved in carrying out a fusion reaction combines hydrodynamics, plasma physics and radiation effects superimposed on each other, at extremely small scales, making the problem very complex. One such phenomenon occurring in the deuterium-tritium pellet implosion is the Richtmyer-Meshkov instability occuring at each layer of the fuel which results in the mixing of the ablator with the fuel. This causes dilution of the fuel and reduces the yield of the reaction. Another issue is the impulsive loading of ICF reactor cooling tubes due to the shock wave produced as a result of the fusion reaction. These tubes must withstand the impulse of the shock wave. A shock tube provides an ideal environment to study these issues at large geometric scales with the isolation of hydrodynamics from other effects. A new vertical, square shock tube has been designed specifically for the purpose of studying these fluid flow phenomena from a fundamental point of view. The shock tube is vertical, with a large square inner cross-section and is designed to allow for the release of a shock into air at atmospheric pressure. In this paper, we describe the new shock tube and related instrumentation in detail and present a few preliminary results on the Richtmyer-Meshkov instability and shock-cylinder interactions. Received 5 January 1999 / Accepted 10 July 2000     

The application of coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering to temperature measurements in a pulsed high enthalpy supersonic flow

Broadband single pulse coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) experiments employing a folded box phase matching geometry in a shock tunnel flow are presented. Rovibrational spectra of molecular nitrogen, produced at the exit of a pulsed supersonic nozzle for a range of flow enthalpies, are examined. Difficulties peculiar to the application of the optical technique to a high enthalpy pulsed flow facility are discussed and measurements of flow temperatures are presented. Theoretically calculated values for temperatures based upon algorithms used to determine shock tunnel flow conditions agree well with experimental measurements using the CARS technique.     

Test-time extension behind reflected shock waves using CO2–He and C3H8–He driver mixtures

To study combustion chemistry at low temperatures in a shock tube, it is of great importance to increase experimental test times, and this can be done by tailoring the interface between the driver and driven gases. Using unconventional driver-gas tailoring with the assistance of tailoring curves, shock-tube test times were increased from 1 to 15 ms for reflected-shock temperatures below 1,000 K. Provided in this paper is the introduction of tailoring curves, produced from a one-dimensional perfect gas model for a wide range of driver gases and the production and demonstration of successful driver mixtures containing helium combined with either propane or carbon dioxide. The He/CO₂ and He/C₃H₈ driver mixtures provide a unique way to produce a tailored interface and, hence, longer test times, when facility modification is not an option. The tailoring curves can be used to guide future applications of this technique to other configurations. Nonreacting validation experiments using driver mixtures identified from the tailoring curves were performed over a range of reflected-shock temperatures from approximately 800 to 1,400 K, and some examples of ignition-time experiments that could not have otherwise been erformed are presented.     

高温分离式Hopkinson压杆技术及其应用

本文介绍了在分离式Hopkinson压杆装置上通过使用一种气动同步机构,实现对试样进行高温高应变率加载的技术。利用此技术仅对试样加高温度而保持入射杆和透射杆与试样脱离且处在较低温度,到预定温度时,借助气动同步机构使入射杆、透射杆与试样接触并同时实现对试样加载。利用波形抑制技术,仅对试样实现一次加载,入射杆中的后续二次加载波通过反作用质量块吸收。通过这些技术的结合,1)可以进行材料在高温高应变率下应力应变测试;2)可以测试材料在高应变率不同温度下的等温曲线;3)可以间接对材料的塑性功热转换系数进行测试;4)可以进行不同温度高应变率下的中断跳跃试验等。在文中给出了一些典型的试验曲线和结果,并对测试方法和结果进行了分析讨论。     

Self-similar hypervelocity shock interactions with oblique contact discontinuities

The two-dimensional inviscid refraction of a shock wave at an oblique contact discontinuity is self-similar; i.e. it depends only upon the variables , . We transform the compressible Euler equations into the self-similar () coordinates and solve the resulting boundary-value problem by an implicit equilibrium flux method. We present results for strong shock ( where M is the incident shock Mach number) interactions with an oblique contact discontinuity separating an inert gas from a gas which exhibits high-temperature gas chemistry effects. To model high-temperature effects we employ Lighthill's ideal dissociating gas (IDG) model. Comparison between the frozen and equilibrium limits, both of which are self-similar, indicate large changes in peak density and temperatures. Significant differences in the overall flow pattern between the frozen and equilibrium limits are observed for interfaces with low negative Atwood ratio and high positive Atwood ratio. Results from a local analysis are presented when the shock refraction is regular. The critical angle at which the transition from regular to irregular refraction occurs is slightly larger for the equilibrium chemistry case. Received 6 September 1996 / Accepted 20 May 1997     

气相爆轰波传播过程中的自点火效应

基于基元反应模型和单步反应模型,对直管道中H₂-air混合气体中爆轰波的传播过程进行了数值模拟,揭示了气相爆轰波传播过程中的自点火效应。利用数值模拟方法计算了不同爆轰模型的点火延迟时间,并得到了爆轰波三波点的传播过程以及所形成胞格结构的尺寸。结果表明,胞格宽度与点火延迟时间成正比;爆轰波诱导区内气体的点火延迟时间与三波点的运动周期基本一致。进一步对结果分析可知,爆轰波的自维持传播取决于点火延迟时间(表征化学反应的特征时间)和三波点的运动周期(表征流动的特征时间)的匹配;当二者相匹配时,经过前导激波压缩后形成的高温高压爆轰气体,在短时间内实现了自点火,同时释放出大量的能量推动了爆轰波的前进,即爆轰波的稳定自维持传播依靠其自点火机制。     

爆燃波在含内构件管道中传播现象的实验研究

为了评估高温气冷核反应堆热交换器H2泄漏、爆炸的安全性,研究含内构件管道的H2/空气爆燃传播现象,建造了几何相似、尺寸相同的实验管道（真空筒）。分别充入不同初压和当量比H2/空气混合物,在真空筒顶部点火并引发爆燃,利用多通道瞬态压力测量和数据采集系统,记录各测点压力时间曲线。结果表明:对化学计量比H2/空气混合物,在慢化剂室和真空筒顶部空间产生爆燃,邻近测点的压力时间曲线显示了冲击波特征。该冲击波通过慢化剂室和真空筒侧壁的狭缝（2.5 mm）,进入含内构件的扩张管道并形成爆燃。冲击波在真空筒端部反射、向后传播并与火焰相互作用,爆炸流场波系复杂。对富油和低初压化学计量比混合物,在慢化剂室和真空筒顶部空间产生燃烧,高温富油燃气的压力上升速率较慢。当燃气通过上述狭缝时,在真空筒突扩空间内再次点火并形成较强爆燃,压力时间曲线显示了冲击波特征及其在端面的反射。     

JP-10裂解的激波管实验与动力学模拟

利用单脉冲激波管对碳氢燃料JP-10在1150~1300K条件下的高温热裂解特性进行了实验研究,采用气相色谱法分析热裂解产物并获得了热裂解速率系数.主要裂解产物有乙烯、乙炔、丙烯、丁烯、1,3-丁二烯、环戊二烯、环戊烯、苯、甲苯,以及少量的甲烷、乙烷、二甲苯和甲基环戊烯.将每次激波管实验后所有产物浓度累加, JP-10裂解速率系数由实验测定.为了消除激波运行中非理想性和边界层效应导致反应温度确定的误差,采用对比速率法确定裂解温度,即在反应物中加入少量热解速率已知的内标物,根据内标物在相同的激波管实验条件下的裂解程度确定反应温度.根据内标物裂解量确定的激波管裂解反应温度通常小于采用传统测量激波速度由激波关系计算的反射激波后5区温度.在1200~1300K之间两种方法得到的温度吻合得较好,差异在20K以内,随着温度升高,两者差异增大.在实验研究的基础上,依据San Diego Mechanism对JP-10高温裂解过程进行了动力学模拟.结果显示:主要裂解产物中乙烯、乙炔和1,3-丁二烯产量随温度变化的实验值与San Diego Mechanism的模拟结果有很好的一致性,但环戊烯产量的实验值比模拟值高很多,预示JP-10裂解中完全开环和部分开环反应都是重要的裂解通道.      

酚醛树脂高温热解的激波管实验研究

采用激波管方法研究了酚醛树脂在温度范围1100K～1800K之间的热解过程。在激波管高温和短实验时间的条件下,分析了实验样品颗粒在高温气相中的传热过程,讨论了样品颗粒达到热平衡的条件。通过色谱和质谱方法检测热解产物,获得了酚醛树脂高温热解产物分布和热解速率常数。酚醛树脂高温热解最主要的产物为水、一氧化碳、氢、乙炔和苯。温度1400K将酚醛树脂热解分为高温和低温区,分别表现出不同的热解速率常数与温度的关系。关键词:酚醛树脂,热解,再入过程,激波管,质谱分析,色谱分析      

Radiative interaction between driver and driven gases in an arc-driven shock tube

An electric-arc driven shock tube was operated with hydrogen as the driven gas and either hydrogen or helium as the driver gas. The electron density was measured behind the primary shock wave spectroscopically from the width of the hydrogen beta line. The intensity of the radiation produced by the driver and driven gases and directed along the axis of the shock tube was measured with a photomultiplier tube. The temperatures behind the primary shock wave were 3 to 4 times those calculated from the Rankine-Hugoniot relations. A proposed explanation for this difference is developed, involving strong heating of the driven gas at early times due to higher shock velocities and radiative energy transfer from the driver arc. The electron density ahead of the shock wave agreed roughly with the calculation based on the precursor phenomenon due to radiative transfer.     

In memoriam Professor Ko Saito (1941-2004)

Professor Ko Saito of Hiroshima University suffering from hepatic cancer passed away on May 20, 2004 at the age of 63, one year before his planned retirement in March 2005. He graduated from Hiroshima University in 1964, supervised by Professor Yamamura, and started his career in high-temperature chemical reaction and was appointed to be a Research Associate of the Department of Chemistry at Hiroshima University in 1967. He received a Doctor of Science Degree in chemistry in 1973 and spent his study leave from May 1980 to March 1981 at the University of Essex UK and worked with Professor JN Bradley. He was promoted to Associate Professor in 1986 and then to Professor of the Hiroshima University in 1990.He had one hundred paper publications in well-known scientific journals, the Proceedings of International Symposia on Shock Waves (ISSW) and was an author of a Japanese text book on physical chemistry. He proved himself as an experimentalist as well as a theoretician and often told students that progress in chemical reaction studies should be maintained by conducting both experiments and analyses based on quantum chemistry. He taught a physical chemistry course to all first-year students introducing rigorously his approach.He devoted himself to identify and characterize features of molecules suddenly exposed to shock created high temperatures and particularly concentrated in thermal decomposition processes of carboxylic acid groups. These acid groups are found to decompose molecular and quantum chemical analyses supports the observation. This is one of the highlights of his achievements.He participated regularly in International and Domestic Shock Wave Symposia and intensively presented important results he and his group discovered. His latest works are presented in the Proceedings of ISSW24 held in Beijing, July 2004. Professor Saito was not only an educator but also an active chemical shock wave researcher serving continuously for 40 years and immensely contributed to establish the academic reputation of the Department of Chemistry of Hiroshima University. Undergraduate and graduate students and post doctoral fellows he once supervised are today remembering his philosophy in their mind and try to widen the world of shock wave chemistry.Published online: 18 February 2005[/PUBLISHED]     

Shock waves from an open-ended shock tube with different shapes

A new method for decreasing the attenuation of a shock wave emerging from an open-ended shock tube exit into a large free space has been developed to improve the shock wave technique for cleaning deposits on the surfaces in industrial equipments by changing the tube exit geometry. Three tube exits (the simple tube exit, a tube exit with ring and a coaxial tube exit) were used to study the propagation processes of the shock waves. The detailed flow features were experimentally investigated by use of a two-dimensional color schlieren method and by pressure measurements. By comparing the results for different tube exits, it is shown that the expansion of the shock waves near the mouth can be restricted by using the tube exit with ring or the coaxial tube exit. Thus, the attenuation of the shock waves is reduced. The time histories of overpressure have illustrated that the best results are obtained for the coaxial tube exit. But the pressure signals for the tube exit with ring showed comparable results with the advantage of a relatively simple geometry. The flow structures of diffracting shock waves have also been simulated by using an upwind finite volume scheme based on a high order extension of Godunov's method as well as an adaptive unstructured triangular mesh refinement/unrefinement algorithm. The numberical results agree remarkably with the experimental ones.     

Application of background oriented schlieren for quantitative measurements of shock waves from explosions

This paper describes application of a background oriented schlieren technique in order to obtain quantitative measurements of shock waves from explosions by processing high speed digital video recordings. The technique is illustrated by an analysis of two explosions, a high explosive test and a hydrogen gas explosion test. The visualization of the shock front is utilized to calculate the shock Mach number, leading to a predicted shock front pressure. For high explosives the method agreed quite well with a standard curve for side-on shock pressures. In the case of the gas explosion test we can also show that the shock front is non-spherical. It should be possible to develop this technique to investigate external blast waves and external explosions from vented gas explosions in more details. This paper is based on work that was presented at the 21th International Colloquium on the Dynamics of Explosions and Reactive Systems, Poitiers, France, July 23–27, 2007.     

Experimental study of toroidal shock wave focusing in a compact vertical annular diaphragmless shock tube

The paper reports results of experiments regarding toroidal shock wave focusing in a vertical shock tube as a part of a series of converging shock wave studies. This compact vertical shock tube was designed to achieve a high degree of reproducibility with minimum shock formation distance by adopting a diaphragmless operating system. The shock tube was manufactured in the Institute of Fluid Science, Tohoku University. An aspheric lens shaped cylindrical test section was connected at the open end of the shock tube to visualize the diffraction and focusing of the toroidal shock wave released from the ring shaped shock tube opening. Pressure transducers were flush mounted on the shock tube’s test section to measure pressure histories at the converging test section. Double exposure holographic interferometry was employed to quantitatively visualize the shock waves. The whole sequence of toroidal shock wave diffraction, focusing, and its reflection from the symmetrical axis were successfully studied. The transition of reflected shock waves was observed.     

Overview of High-temperature Deformation Measurement Using Digital Image Correlation

Background

Developments in digital image correlation (DIC) in the last decade have made it a practical and effective optical technique for displacement and strain measurement at high temperatures.

Objective

This overview aims to review the research progress, summarize the experience and provide valuable references for the high-temperature deformation measurement using DIC.

Methods

We comprehensively summarize challenges and recent advances in high-temperature DIC techniques.

Results

Fundamental principles of high-temperature DIC and various approaches to generate thermal environment or apply thermal loading are briefly introduced first. Then, the three primary challenges presented in performing high-temperature DIC measurements, i.e., 1). image saturation caused by intensified thermal radiation of heated sample and surrounding heating elements, 2) image contrast reduction due to surface oxidation of the heated sample and speckle pattern debonding, and 3) image distortion due to heat haze between the sample and the heating source, and corresponding countermeasures (i.e., the suppression of thermal radiation, fabrication of high-temperature speckle pattern and mitigation of heat haze) are discussed in detail. Next, typical applications of high-temperature DIC at various spatial scales are briefly described. Finally, remaining unsolved problems and future goals in high-temperature deformation measurements using DIC are also provided. 

Conclusions

We expect this review can guide to build a suitable DIC system for kinematic field measurements at high temperatures and solve the challenging problems that may be encountered during real tests.