Electronic structures of magnetic ultrathin films Co/Au(1 1 1) studied by spin-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy

We have measured the spin-resolved photoemission spectra of the Co thin films grown epitaxially on Au(1 1 1) substrate in order to investigate their valence band structures. It is proved that the electronic structures of Co thin films are pretty different from that of bulk hcp-Co. It is observed that as the films grow thicker, the electronic structures become closer to those of the bulk Co with the magnetic anisotropy turning into in-plane magnetization from out-of-plane magnetization.     

Development and integration of near atmospheric N2 ambient sputtered Au thin film for enhanced infrared absorption

The exceedingly fragile nature of thermally grown Au-black coating makes handling and patterning a critical issue. Infrared absorption characteristics of near atmospheric, N₂ ambient DC sputtered Au thin films are studied for this purpose. The thin Au films are sputtered at different chamber pressures in Ar and N₂/Ar gas ambient from 4.5 to 8.0 mbar and optimized for enhanced infrared absorption. The absorber film sputtered in N₂/Ar ambient at 8.0 mbar chamber pressure offers significant absorption of medium to long wave infrared radiations. The micro-patterning of sputtered Au thin film is carried out by using conventional photolithography and metal lift off methods on a prefabricated µ-infrared detector array on Si (1 0 0) substrate. The steady state temperature response of sputtered film has been examined using nondestructive thermal imaging method under external heating of the detector array.     

The development of the physical and electrical characteristics of multi-layer TiO<Subscript>2</Subscript>–W–TiO<Subscript>2</Subscript> thin films

In this study, two different thin films, TiO₂ thin film and TiO₂–W–TiO₂ multi-layer thin films (W, tungsten), are prepared by RF magnetron sputtering onto glass substrates. The crystal structure, morphology, and transmittance of TiO₂ and TiO₂–W–TiO₂ multi-layer thin films are investigated by X-ray diffraction, SEM, and UV-Vis spectrometer, respectively. The amorphous, rutile, and anatase TiO₂ phases are observed in the TiO₂ thin film and in the TiO₂–W–TiO₂ multi-layer thin films. The deposition of tungsten as the inter-layer will have large effect on the transmittance and phase ratios of rutile and anatase phases in the TiO₂–W–TiO₂ multi-layer thin films. The crystal intensities of amorous TiO₂ will decrease as the tungsten is used as the middle layer in the multi-layer structure. The band gap energy values of TiO₂ thin film and TiO₂–W–TiO₂ multi-layer thin films are evaluated from (αhν)^1/2 versus energy plots, and the calculated results show that the energy gap decreases from 3.21 eV (TiO₂ thin film) to 3.08∼3.03 EV (TiO₂–W–TiO₂ multi-layer thin films).     

Tailored Pd-Au layer produced by conventional evaporation process for hydrogen sensing

Here we propose two methods using conventional evaporation process to produce tailored Pd/Au composite thin films for hydrogen sensing. In the first method Pd and Au are evaporated simultaneously using different evaporation rate. In the other, alternated nano-layer of Pd and Au are evaporated. Some characteristics of the thin films and their response to hydrogen when they are deposited over optical fibers are experimentally analyzed. Optical fiber sensors for detection of hydrogen concentration lower than 4% and response time of 10 s approximately are demonstrated. The possibility to precisely control the proportion of the constituents of Pd-alloys thin films to produce optical fiber hydrogen sensors with fast response makes these methods very attractive.     

Deposition of copper iodide thin films by chemical bath deposition (CBD) and successive ionic layer adsorption and reaction (SILAR) methods

In this paper, we report structural, morphological, electrical studies of copper iodide (CuI) thin films deposited onto glass substrates by chemical bath deposition (CBD) and successive ionic layer adsorption and reaction (SILAR) methods. CuI thin films were characterized for their structural, morphological and wettability studies by means of X-ray diffraction (XRD), FT-Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), optical absorption, and contact angle measurement methods. Thickness of thin films was 1 ± 0.1 μm measured by gravimetric weight difference method. The CuI thin films were nanocrystalline, with average crystal size of ～60 nm. The FT-IR study confirmed the formation of CuI on the substrate surface. SEM images revealed the compact and cube like structure for CuI thin films deposited by CBD and SILAR methods, respectively. Optical absorption study revealed optical energy gaps as 2.3 and 3.0 eV for CBD and SILAR methods, respectively. Wettability study indicated that CuI thin films deposited by SILAR method are more hydrophobic as compared to CBD method.     

Relation between molecule ionization energy,film thickness and morphology of two indandione derivatives thin films

Nowadays most organic devices consist of thin (below 100 nm) layers. Information about the morphology and energy levels of thin films at such thickness is essential for the high efficiency devices. In this work we have investigated thin films of 2-(4-[N,N-dimethylamino]-benzylidene)-indene-1,3-dione (DMABI) and 2-(4-(bis(2-(trityloxy)ethyl)amino)benzylidene)-2H-indene-1,3-dione (DMABI-6Ph). DMABI-6Ph is the same DMABI molecule with attached bulky groups which assist formation of amorphous films from solutions. Polycrystalline structure was obtained for the DMABI thin films prepared by thermal evaporation in vacuum and amorphous structure for the DMABI-6Ph films prepared by spin-coating method. Images taken by SEM showed separate crystals or islands at the thickness of the samples below 100 nm. The ionization energy of the studied compounds was determined using photoemission yield spectroscopy. A vacuum level shift of 0.40 eV was observed when ITO electrode was covered with the thin film of the organic compound. Despite of the same active part of the investigated molecules the ITO/DMABI interface is blocking electrons while ITO/DMABI-6Ph interface is blocking holes.     

Impact of interface geometric structure on organic–metal interface energetics and subsequent films electronic structure

We present the electronic structure of various pentacene thin films grown on Au(1 1 1), Cu(1 1 1), Cu(1 0 0), and Cu(1 1 0) surfaces studied by angle-resolved ultraviolet photoemission spectroscopy using synchrotron radiation. A systematic variation of the metal surface such as the substrate metal and its surface symmetry allows a comprehensive discussion on the correlation between the electronic structure and the interface geometric structure. In the monolayer regime, we observed the evidence of the formation of the organic–metal interface state depending on the metal surface, i.e., the interface geometric structure. This evidence is explained by the different organic–metal and intermolecular interactions, which originate from the hybridization of the molecular orbitals with the metal wavefunction. These interface geometric and electronic phenomena can be a seed for the subsequent film growth and resultant films electronic structure.     

High quality nitrogen-doped zinc oxide thin films grown on ITO by sol–gel method

Highly transparent N-doped ZnO thin films were deposited on ITO coated corning glass substrate by sol–gel method. Ammonium nitrate was used as a dopant source of N with varying the doping concentration 0, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0 at%. The DSC analysis of prepared NZO sols is observed a phase transition at 150 °C. X-ray diffraction pattern showed the preferred (002) peak of ZnO, which was deteriorated with increased N concentrations. The transmittance of NZO thin films was observed to be ~88%. The bandgap of NZO thin films increased from 3.28 to 3.70 eV with increased N concentration from 0 to 3 at%. The maximum carrier concentration 8.36×10¹⁷ cm⁻³ and minimum resistivity 1.64 Ω cm was observed for 3 at% N doped ZnO thin films deposited on glass substrate. These highly transparent ZnO thin films can be used as a window layer in solar cells and optoelectronic devices.     

The formation of sub-10 nm nanohole array on block copolymer thin films on gold surface using surface neutralization based on O2 plasma treatment and self-assembled monolayer

Blockcopolymer (BCP) lithography is an emerging nanolithography technique for fabrications of various nanoscale devices and materials. In this study, self-assembled BCP thin films having cylindrical nanoholes were prepared on gold by surface neutralization using self-assembled monolayer (SAM). Oxygen plasma treatment was investigated as a way to enhance the functionality of Au surface toward SAM formation. After surface neutralization, well-ordered nanoholes with 9 to 20 nm diameters were formed inside BCP thin films on Au surfaces through microphase separation. The effects of oxygen plasma treatment on the formation of BCP nanopattern were investigated using surface analysis techniques including X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and water contact angle measurement. Au nanodot arrays were fabricated on gold film by utilizing the BCP nanotemplate and investigated by atomic force microscopy (AFM).     

Development of human IgE biosensor using Sezawa-mode SAW devices

This paper reports Sezawa-mode surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices with via-isolated cavity to construct the allergy biosensor. To fabricate Sezawa-mode SAW devices, the RF magnetron sputtering method for the growth of piezoelectric ZnO thin films are adopted and influences of the sputtering parameters are investigated. The optimal substrate temperature of 300 °C, RF power of 120 W and sputtering pressure of 2 Pa were used to deposit piezoelectric ZnO films with a smooth surface, uniform grain size and strongly c-axis-orientated crystallization. A back-etched SAW resonator is used in this study. The wet etching of (100)-oriented silicon wafers is used to form a back-side cavity which is critical to the formation of a hopper cavity for holding bio-analytes. The remaining membrane structure silicon thickness was 25 μm. In this report, the chrome (Cr, 12 nm)/gold (Au, 66 nm) layer was initially deposited onto the sensing area of SAW devices as the binding layer for biochemical sensor. The resonance frequency of the Sezawa-mode SAW device is 1.497 GHz. The maximum sensitivity of the Sezawa-mode is calculated to be 4.44 × 10⁶ cm²/g for human immunoglobulin-E (IgE) detection. The stability for human IgE detection is calculated to be 80% and the variation of the stability ±3% was obtained after several tests.     

Nonlinear optical absorption in Bi3TiNbO9 thin films using Z-scan?technique

Bi₃TiNbO₉ (BTN) thin films with layered perovskite structure were fabricated on fused silica by pulsed laser deposition. The XRD pattern revealed that the films are single-phase perovskite and highly (00l) textured. Their fundamental optical constants, such as band gap, linear refractive index, and linear absorption coefficient, were obtained by optical transmittance measurements. The dispersion relation of the refractive index vs. wavelength follows the single electronic oscillator model. The nonlinear optical absorption of the films was investigated by single beam Z-scan method at a wavelength of 800 nm with laser duration of 80 fs. We obtained the nonlinear absorption coefficient β=1.44×10⁻⁷ m/W. The results show that the BTN thin films are promising for applications in absorbing-type optical devices.     

Hall mobility and characteristics of gas-phase polymerized poly(3-iodothiophene) thin films

The semi-conductive poly(3-iodothiophene)(P3IT) films were fabricated by gas-phase polymerization through a chemical vapor deposition process. The P3IT nanoscale films have a high crystalline morphologies, and possessed a high Hall mobility up to 10 cm²/Vs. The degree of crystalline and the mobility values measured through Scanning Electron Microscopy, atomic force microscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy with structural analysis. These conductive thin films, possessing polycrystalline structures, have a very high mobility and are capable of being applied to organic electronic layers for electrical devices such as the thin film transistors and organic photovoltaic cells.     

Characteristics of ZnO:In thin films prepared by RF magnetron sputtering

In-doped ZnO (ZnO:In) transparent conductive thin films were deposited on glass substrates by RF magnetron sputtering. The effect of substrate temperature on the structural, electrical and optical properties of the ZnO:In thin films was investigated. It was found that higher temperature improves the crystallinity of the films and promotes In substitution easily. ZnO:In thin films with the best crystal quality were fabricated at 300 °C, which exhibit a larger grain size of 29 nm and small tensile strain of 0.9%. The transmittance of all the films was revealed to be over 85% in the visible range independence of the substrate temperatures and the lowest resistivity of ZnO:In thin films is 2.4×10⁻³ Ω cm.     

Bulk-wave and guided-wave photoacoustic evaluation of the mechanical properties of aluminum/silicon nitride double-layer thin films

The development of devices made of micro- and nano-structured thin film materials has resulted in the need for advanced measurement techniques to characterize their mechanical properties. Photoacoustic techniques, which use pulsed laser irradiation to nondestructively induce very high frequency ultrasound in a test object via rapid thermal expansion, are suitable for nondestructive and non-contact evaluation of thin films. In this paper, we compare two photoacoustic techniques to characterize the mechanical parameters of edge-supported aluminum and silicon nitride double-layer thin films. The elastic properties and residual stresses in such films affect their mechanical performance. In a first set of experiments, a femtosecond transient pump–probe technique is used to investigate the Young’s moduli of the aluminum and silicon nitride layers by launching ultra-high frequency bulk acoustic waves in the films. The measured transient signals are compared with simulated transient thermoelastic signals in multi-layer structures, and the elastic moduli are determined. Independent pump–probe tests on silicon substrate-supported region and unsupported region are in good agreement. In a second set of experiments, dispersion curves of the A₀ mode of the Lamb waves that propagate along the unsupported films are measured using a broadband photoacoustic guided-wave method. The residual stresses and flexural rigidities for the same set of double-layer membranes are determined from these dispersion curves. Comparisons of the results obtained by the two photoacoustic techniques are made and discussed.     

Thin film stress measurement by instrumented optical fibre displacement sensor

Residual stress can adversely affect the mechanical, electronic, optical and magnetic properties of thin films. This work describes a simple stress measurement instrument based on the bending beam method together with a sensitive non-contact fibre optical displacement sensor. The fibre optical displacement sensor is interfaced to a computer and a Labview programme enables film stress to be determined from changes in the radius of curvature of the film-substrate system. The stress measurement instrument was tested for two different kinds of thin film, hard amorphous carbon nitride (CN) and soft copper (Cu) films on silicon substrates deposited by RF magnetron sputtering. Residual stress developed in 500 nm thick CN thin films deposited at substrate temperatures in the range 50-550 °C was examined and it was found that stress in CN films decreased from 0.83 to 0.44 GPa compressive with increase of substrate temperature. Residual stress was found to be tensile (121 MPa) for Cu films of thickness 1500 nm deposited at room temperature.     

Measurement of mixed conductivity in thin films with microstructured Hebb–Wagner blocking electrodes

Determination of the ionic and electronic contributions to the total conductivity in mixed ionic–electronic conductors (MIEC) is central to understanding their properties, particularly in nanostructured ionic solids. The Hebb–Wagner blocking technique, commonly used to deconvolute ionic and electronic contributions in bulk MIECs, is susceptible to misinterpretation when applied to thin films. In this work, microfabricated electronic blocking electrodes consisting of porous Pt on dense thin yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) films were applied to nanocrystalline CeO₂ thin films. The validity of the blocking structure was expressly considered with respect to alternate current and gas phase reaction pathways, with criteria developed to aid in identifying spurious effects. The ionic partial conductivity in nanocrystalline CeO₂ thin films was confirmed to be pO₂-independent while the electronic partial conductivity was found to be pO₂ dependent with a power dependence of − 0.31 ± 0.02. These results are compared with theoretical predictions of extrinsically-compensated ceria and previous results on bulk nanocrystalline ceria.     

Characteristics of ZnO:In thin films prepared by RF magnetron sputtering

In-doped ZnO (ZnO:In) transparent conductive thin films were deposited on glass substrates by RF magnetron sputtering. The effect of substrate temperature on the structural, electrical and optical properties of the ZnO:In thin films was investigated. It was found that higher temperature improves the crystallinity of the films and promotes In substitution easily. ZnO:In thin films with the best crystal quality were fabricated at 300 °C, which exhibit a larger grain size of 29 nm and small tensile strain of 0.9%. The transmittance of all the films was revealed to be over 85% in the visible range independence of the substrate temperatures and the lowest resistivity of ZnO:In thin films is 2.4×10⁻³ Ω cm.     

Structural evolution at the initial growth stage of perylene on Au(1 1 1)

We report on the structural evolution at the initial growth stage of perylene thin films on Au(1 1 1) surface. Scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy have been employed to investigate the structural and electronic properties at 78 K. Rapid molecular diffusion was observed at low submonolayer coverage. Molecules form an ordered structure at monolayer coverage. For the second layer, impinging molecules nucleate into molecular islands with an ordered intermediate structure.     

Nonvolatile unipolar resistive switching in ultrathin films of graphene and carbon nanotubes

We report unipolar resistive switching in ultrathin films of chemically produced graphene (reduced graphene oxide) and multiwalled carbon nanotubes. The two-terminal devices with yield >99% are made at room temperature by forming continuous films of graphene of thickness ∼20 nm on indium tin oxide coated glass electrode, followed by metal (Au or Al) deposition on the film. These memory devices are nonvolatile, rewritable with ON/OFF ratios up to ∼ 10⁵ and switching times up to 10 μs. The devices made of MWNT films are rewritable with ON/OFF ratios up to ∼400. The resistive switching mechanism is proposed to be nanogap formation and filamentary conduction paths.     

Effects of substrate shape, curvature and roughness on thin heteroepitaxial films of Pt on Au(1 1 1)

The growth of thin (1–10 nm) films of Pt on Au(1 1 1) was studied in order to understand and clarify differences in growth mode observed in ultra-high vacuum (UHV) studies and in electrochemical deposition studies. It was found that on flat Au(1 1 1), Pt grows in a layer-by-layer growth mode, but if the gold substrate is exposed to an acidic environment prior to Pt deposition, then the substrate becomes nanoscopically rough (islanded) and Pt growth follows a pseudo-Stranski–Krastanov (SK) growth mode in which an initially thin wetting layer becomes rougher with increasing film thickness. An analysis of curvature effects on epitaxial growth mode shows that thermodynamic curvature effects involving surface stress are negligible for the Pt/Au(1 1 1) system. Rather, the apparent SK growth is linked to kinetic effects associated with inhomogeneous in-plane elastic relaxation of Pt films on rough surfaces that drive Pt atoms from pits to the tops of islands in the early stages of growth. Implications for the control of epitaxial film roughness are discussed.