Effects of process variables on laser direct formation of thin wall

In this paper, effects of process variables on wall thickness, powder primary efficiency and speed of forming a thin metallic wall in single-pass coaxial laser cladding are investigated, and some resolution models are established and testified experimentally. With some assumptions, each of wall thickness, powder primary efficiency and formation speed can be defined as a function of the process variables. Wall thickness is equal to width of the molten pool created in single-pass laser cladding and determined by laser absorptivity, laser power, initial temperature, scanning speed and thermo-physical properties of clad material. Powder primary efficiency and formation speed are both dependent on an exponential function involving the ratio of melt pool width, which is decided by the process variables, to powder flow diameter. In addition, formation speed is influenced by powder feed rate. In present experiment, a 500 W continual-wave (CW) CO₂ laser is used to produce thin-wall samples by single-pass coaxial laser cladding. The experimental results agree well with the calculation values despite some errors.     

Concentration mode of the powder stream in coaxial laser cladding

The blown powder laser cladding process has recently been greatly enhanced by the development of a coaxial powder feed system. It provides a new route to generate the metal parts directly from CAD drawings. The performance of the coaxial powder feeder depends on various gas flow streams which significantly affect the distribution mode of the powder stream and the deposition rate in cladding.Two types of optical techniques have been adopted in this study to investigate the powder concentration mode of the coaxial jet streams. The mode of the powder stream is also mathematically modelled and compared to the experimental results of stainless steel powder. The Gaussian distribution mode in the transverse direction of the powder stream was identified by theory and experiment at cold stream conditions.     

Numerical simulation of metallic powder flow in a coaxial nozzle in laser direct metal deposition

To investigate the influencing rule of deposited layer’s shape on coaxial powder feeding flow field in the metal forming process, gas–solid two-phase flow theory is used to analyze effect of deposited layers on powder concentration distribution and variation of focus distance from nozzle outlet to convergence point (the center of the convergent zone). Different height and width parameters of deposited layers were chosen to calculate the powder concentration distribution, consequently, and also their effect on additive height of single-trace cladding layer was studied by experimental investigations. The numerical results are in good agreement with experimental observations. The results indicated that additive height of cladding layer was non-uniform under uneven wall thickness of parts fabrication condition. Consequently, the surface of deposited layers with uneven thickness is not smooth, and hence affects surface forming quality.     

Numerical simulation of powder transport behavior in laser cladding with coaxial powder feeding

Laser cladding with coaxial powder feeding is one of the new processes applied to produce well bonding coating on the component to improve performance of its surface. In the process, the clad material is transported by the carrying gas through the coaxial nozzle, generating gas-powder flow. The powder feeding process in the coaxial laser cladding has important influence on the clad qualities. A 3D numerical model was developed to study the powder stream structure of a coaxial feeding nozzle. The predicted powder stream structure was well agreed with the experimental one. The validated model was used to explore the collision behavior of particles in the coaxial nozzle, as well as powder concentration distribution. It was found that the particle diameter and restitution coefficient greatly affect the velocity vector at outlet of nozzle due to the collisions, as well as the powder stream convergence characteristics below the nozzle. The results indicated a practical approach to optimize the powder stream for the coaxial laser cladding.     

Coaxial laser cladding on an inclined substrate

This paper describes an experimental and theoretical study of the cladding mode of coaxial laser cladding on an inclined substrate. Based on the image analysis of the powder stream and clad profile measurements in coaxial laser cladding, it was found that irregular clad profiles always formed on an inclined surface and the location of the peak profile shifted away from the clad center. This phenomenon is caused by uneven distributions of powder concentration and laser beam intensity. A modified Gaussian mode for powder stream and laser beam was proposed to estimate the clad profiles on an inclined plane under laser beam irradiation. The effects of the inclined steel substrate on the CO₂ laser beam absorption and stainless-steel powder catchment were examined experimentally. The results show that both the laser absorption and the powder catchment on the mild steel decrease with increasing the cladding angle. From the analysis of laser beam mode, the clad width is equivalent to the beam spot size on the inclined substrate. However, the clad height correlates well with the distribution of the powder concentration. The results show that the Gaussian cladding mode could be adopted in various laser cladding applications such as rapid prototyping and butt welding to predict the clad profiles precisely.     

Study on cross-section clad profile in coaxial single-pass cladding with a low-power laser

In this paper, a model of cross-section clad profile on the substrate in coaxial single-pass cladding with a low-power laser was studied. The static model of powder mass concentration distribution at cold-stream conditions was defined as a Gaussian function. In coaxial single-pass cladding with a low-power laser, since the influence of surface tension, gravity and gas flow on the clad bead could be neglected, the cross-section profile of the clad bead deposited by a low-power laser on the substrate was dominated by the powder concentration at each point on the pool and the time when the material was liquid at this point. The height of each point on the cross-section clad profile was defined as a definite integration of a Gaussian function from the moment at which the melt pool was just arriving at the point to the moment at which the point left the melt pool. In the presented experiment, powder of Steel 63 (at 0.63 wt% C) was deposited on a substrate of Steel 20 (at 0.20 wt% C) at the laser power of 135 W. The experimental results testified the model.     

激光熔覆中同轴粉末流温度场的数值模拟

在激光同轴送粉熔覆中,由于激光与粉末流相互作用,粉末流整体温度分布直接影响激光熔覆的质量.基于非预混燃烧模型,将激光相处理为连续性介质,粉末颗粒相看作离散相物质,建立了激光作用下粉末流的质量、动量和能量方程.用Fluent软件进行了不同激光功率和粉末流速度条件下粉末流整体温度场数值模拟,讨论了各种参数对温度场分布的影响.为了验证该模型的准确度,利用CCD比色测温方法测量了粉末流整体温度场分布.结果表明,数值模拟与CCD检测结果具有良好的一致性,数值模拟结果对激光熔覆具有指导意义.     

Temperature analysis of the powder streams in coaxial laser cladding

The powder stream temperature of a newly developed coaxial laser cladding technique have been calculated and measured in this study. A simplified one-dimensional model of the particle heating problem under laser irradiation was solved with various conditions of laser intensity, particle size and flow velocity. The experimental results have been successfully detected by a pin-hole infrared sensor with the temperature calibration for hot particles. The thermal profiles of the coaxial nozzle give an optimum operation range of the stand-off distance for coaxial laser cladding.     

Analysis and prediction of single laser tracks geometrical characteristics in coaxial laser cladding process

Direct Laser Fabrication is a promising new manufacturing technology coming from laser cladding process. From a coaxial nozzle, powder is fed through a laser beam on a substrate. The powder melting and solidification processes lead to the fabrication of a part layer by layer. In this work 316L stainless steel powder is used to form laser tracks on a low carbon steel substrate. The layer geometry is an important process characteristic to control the final part of fabrication. This paper presents analytical relationships between the laser tracks geometrical characteristics (width, height, area, penetration depth) and the processing parameters (laser power P, scanning speed V and powder mass flow Q_m). Three values of each processing parameters are fixed and so 27 different experiments have been made and analyzed. The validity of these results is discussed studying the correlation coefficient R, the graphical analysis of the residuals and the uncertainty evaluations. Two kinds of models are studied to predict the form and the geometrical characteristics of the single laser tracks cross sections. The first one is an analytical model in which the distribution of the powder in the feed jet is supposed to govern the laser clad geometry. Three distributions are proposed: Gaussian, uniform and polynomial. In the second model the general form of the clad cross section is supposed to be a disk due to the surface tension forces. Analytical relationships are established between the radius and the center of the disk in one hand and the process parameters in the other hand. This way we show that we can reproduce the laser track geometry in all the area experimentally explored.     

Solute transport and composition profile during direct metal deposition with coaxial powder injection

Direct metal deposition (DMD) with coaxial powder injection allows fabrication of three-dimensional geometry with rapidly solidified microstructure. During DMD, addition of powder leads to the interaction between laser and powder, and also the redistribution of solute. The concentration distribution of the alloying element is very important for mechanical properties of the deposited clad material. The evolution of concentration distribution of carbon and chromium in the molten pool is simulated using a self-consistent three-dimensional model, based on the solution of the equations of mass, momentum, energy conservation and solute transport in the molten pool. The experimental and calculated molten pool geometry is compared for model validation purposes.     

激光熔覆中金属粉末粒子与激光相互作用模型

为了对同轴激光熔覆过程中运动的金属粉末粒子的速度和温度进行理论分析,并研究各工艺参量的影响,建立了运动中金属粉末粒子的运动模型和热模型.模拟结果表明,粉嘴几何尺寸、粒子直径以及气/粉两相流初始速度是影响粒子运动行为的重要因素;粉嘴几何尺寸、激光焦点位置、激光发散角、激光功率、粒子直径以及气/粉两相流初始速度是影响粒子热行为的重要因素.在相同的工艺参量下(粉嘴出口内径r=2 mm,粉嘴倾角α=60°,初始气流速度v0=0.8 m/s),基于数字粒子图像测速(DPIV)技术,对316L不锈钢粉末粒子运动模型进行了实验验证.结果表明,运动理论模型是可靠的.该模型是掌握同轴激光熔覆过程中金属粉末粒子运动行为的有效工具;同时,热模型也是分析粉末粒子温度随不同参量变化的重要工具.     

Thermal processes of a powder particle in coaxial laser cladding

This paper presents a numerical analysis of the heating, melting and evaporation processes of a single spherical powder particle when irradiated by a CO₂ laser beam in coaxial laser cladding. The power particle has a size ranging from 20 to 200 μm and the intensity of the laser has been varied from 500 to 3000 W. The laser energy, initial powder velocity and size have been shown to have important effects on the temperature profile of the powder stream. It has also been shown that high powder evaporation due to high power laser radiation may induce significant loss in the powder particle mass, to as much as 25% of the initial size at certain conditions in the simulation.     

Concentration model based on movement model of powder flow in coaxial laser cladding

The structure below the coaxial nozzle is critical since the spatial distribution of metal powder particles determines the laser attenuation as well as catchment efficiency. It is difficult to simulate the powder concentration distribution, because the complex phenomena involved in the two-phase turbulence flow. In this paper, the air-powder flow is studied along with powder properties, nozzle geometries and shielding gas setting. A Gaussian model is established to quantitatively predict the powder stream concentration in order to facilitate coaxial nozzle design optimizations. An experimental setup is design to measure the powder concentration for this process. The simulated results are compared with the experimental results. This study shows that the powder concentration mode is influenced significantly by powder properties, nozzle geometries and shielding gas setting.     

Investigation on cracking behavior of Ni-based coating by laser-induction hybrid cladding

Based on the experiments of laser-induction hybrid cladding by powder feeding, the cracking behavior of Ni-based coating and solidification characteristic in molten pool were investigated. The results indicate that the hybrid cladding is effective to prevent from cracking in Ni-based coating. With the increase of induction energy density, the tensile stress and crack rate decrease obviously. When the induction energy density arrives at 36 J/mm², the free-cracks coating can be achieved. In laser-induction hybrid cladding, the martensite can be eliminated in the heat affected zone and the phase transformation stress is little. Moreover, the molten pool is solidified through two directions such as the coating surface and coating/substrate interface, i.e., firstly the top and bottom in molten pool are solidified, and then the middle in molten pool is solidified. Therefore, in hybrid cladding, the peak value of tensile stress is located in the middle of coating, which is different from that in laser cladding. This distribution status of residual stress is greatly helpful to restrict the cracks of Ni-based coating in laser-induction hybrid cladding.     

Effects of processing parameters on structure of Ni-based WC composite coatings during laser induction hybrid rapid cladding

The relationships between the processing parameters (i.e. laser specific energy, powder density, preheated temperature of substrate and types of substrate) and the structure characteristics of Ni-based WC composite coatings during laser induction hybrid rapid cladding (LIHRC) were investigated systematically. The results show that laser specific energy, cladding height and contact angle have a linear relation with powder density, as can provide the predictions of laser processing parameters according to the geometrical characteristics of a single laser track (i.e. cladding height, cladding width). Moreover, dilution of composite coating increases with the increasing of laser specific energy and the preheated temperature of substrate, while reduces with the increasing of powder density. The types of substrate also have an important effect on dilution of composite coating, as has a strong dependence on the thermophysical properties of substrate (i.e. melting point, resistivity and permeability).     

送粉角度对激光熔覆铁基复合涂层形状特征的影响

通过分析激光熔覆过程中光束、粉末和熔池间的作用机理,建立了送粉式激光熔覆材料有效利用率的数学模型,在此基础上推导了送粉角度与工艺参数之间的定量关系式,并计算了不同送粉角度下的熔覆材料有效利用率、熔高和横截面积。结果表明,在熔覆工艺参数不变的条件下,理论计算的熔覆材料有效利用率、熔覆层高度和横截面积均随送粉角度的增加而增大,且均高于实验检测值。激光熔覆过程中,由于粉末烧损和机械损失,使熔覆材料有效利用率、熔高和横截面积随送粉角度变化出现最大值,理想送粉角度为60。     

Velocity Distribution of the Powder Particles in Laser Cladding

The velocity distribution of powder particles in the laser cladding has an important influence on the motion of liquid in the laser molten pool. In this paper, considering the carrier gas leaving the nozzle to be a steady jet, the velocity distribution of the powder particles is obtained, which can be used as input data in the modelling of the laser cladding.     

Velocity Distribution of the Powder Particles in Laser Cladding

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热激法光子晶体光纤光栅制备工艺中热传导特性研究

研究了基于结构性改变的光子晶体光纤光栅的热激法制备工艺,理论分析了此种工艺的成栅原理,采用热传导理论和有限元法研究了制备过程中光子晶体光纤中的温度场分布,以及包层空气孔结构和激光参数对成栅效果的影响.研究结果表明,利用光子晶体光纤包层空气孔周期性塌缩可以形成光栅;采用两点热激法时,能够实现能量在光纤径向均匀分布,轴向近似于高斯分布;包层气孔结构加速了成栅过程,相同光斑尺寸下,光纤塌缩所需激光功率随气孔层数和气孔半径的增大而减小;最后,对包层空气孔结构为1层到7层的光子晶体光纤热激过程进行仿真,得到了空气填 关键词： 光纤光栅 光子晶体光纤 热激法 有限元法     

Formation of cross-sectional profile of a clad bead in coaxial laser cladding

In order to determine a cross-sectional profile of a clad bead in coaxial laser cladding, its formation mechanism is investigated theoretically and experimentally. In laser cladding, every point at the back edge of a melt pool is contributed to a cross-sectional profile of the clad bead to be formed, and points at the same pool edge but on different cross sections are located at different cross-sectional profiles of the clad bead. A cross-sectional profile of a clad bead is composed of points of intersection between the cross section and a series of pool edges. Model of the cross-sectional clad profile in single-pass coaxial laser cladding is developed. A 500 W CO₂ laser is used in the experiment. The experimental result agrees well with the calculated cross-sectional clad profile.