Enriching Science and Math Through Engineering

This case study reviewed the collaborative efforts of university engineers, teacher educators, and middle school teachers to advance sixth‐ and seventh‐grade students' learning through a series of project‐based engineering activities. This two‐year project enriched regular school curricula by introducing real‐world applications of science and mathematics concepts that expanded opportunities for creativity and problem‐solving, introduced problem‐based learning, and provided after‐school programming (for girls only) led by engineering students from the local university. This engineering education initiative showed significant impact on students' (1) confidence in science and mathematics; (2) effort toward science and mathematics; (3) awareness of engineering; and (4) interest in engineering as a potential career. With regard to gender, there were no significant differences between boys' and girls' responses. The girls' confidence in their own skills and potential, however, was significantly more positive than the boys' confidence in the girls. These results gave rise to new questions regarding mentor/mentee relationships and the overall effect of “girls only” mentoring.     

Re‐creating a Recipe for Science Instructional Programs: Adding Learning Progressions,Scaffolding, and a Dash of Reading Variety

The purpose of this article is to focus on the development and refinement of a science instructional design program arguing for the feasibility and usability of integrated reading and science instruction as implemented in third‐ and fourth‐grade science classrooms to meet the learning needs of diverse learners. These instructional components are easily inserted into existing programs that build students' science background knowledge and abilities to apply learning through scaffolded activities focused on (1) providing structured opportunities for students to engage in hands‐on activities; (2) increasing vocabulary knowledge and understanding of concept‐laden terms, and (3) reading paired narrative and informational science texts. Extensive research shows that as students transition from third to fourth grade and beyond, they are often challenged in science by new vocabulary coupled with new concepts. Active ingredients of our reconceptualized science instructional design program are narrative informational texts, hands‐on science activities, and science textbook(s).     

Students' Understanding of the Particulate Nature of Matter

The particulate nature of matter is identified in science education standards as one of the fundamental concepts that students should understand at the middle school level. However, science education research in indicates that secondary school students have difficulties understanding the structure of matter. The purpose of the study is to describe how engaging in an extended project‐based unit developed urban middle school students' understanding of the particulate nature of matter. Multiple sources of data were collected, including pre‐ and posttests, interviews, students' drawings, and video recordings of classroom activities. One teacher and her five classes were chosen for an indepth study. Analyses of data show that after experiencing a series of learning activities the majority of students acquired substantial content knowledge. Additionally, the finding indicates that students' understanding of the particulate nature of matter improved over time and that they retained and even reinforced their understanding after applying the concept. Discussions of the design features of curriculum and the teacher's use of multiple representations might provide insights into the effectiveness of learning activities in the unit.     

“I Am Science and the World Is Mine”: Embodied Practices as Resources for Empowerment

Those who are most marginalized, both culturally and economically, in society are concentrated in the nation's largest urban centers and have the least opportunities to be successful in school science or to pursue higher education and career trajectories in science, mathematics, or engineering. This article shares the results of a study in which African American economically disadvantaged high school students living in Philadelphia were hired as student researchers and had the opportunity to develop a curriculum enhancer — a movie entitled Sound in the City. The findings reveal that the students' capacity to act, or their sense of agency, expanded both through the process of making the movie and with the final movie product. During the production of the movie, the youth accessed multiple resources (both physical and human) to represent abstract physics facts in contextualized ways. Specifically, this article illuminates how they drew upon embodied practices that included rhythm, verbal fluency, and high energy in creating and filming the movie segments, as well as behind the scenes as they worked to understand the physics content. This study urges the science education community to consider how students' embodied practices can connect them to science in empowering ways that expand their capacity for action in multiple spaces.     

Rural teacher leadership in science and mathematics

This study adds to our understanding of science and mathematics teacher leadership in rural schools. Through In Vivo and Concept coding of teacher interviews, we investigated 20 secondary science and mathematics teachers' perceptions of rural teacher leadership during their participation in a three-year professional development program. As the teachers developed as teacher leaders, they broadened their focus from improving their own students' learning to sharing new knowledge learned through the program with other teachers both informally and formally. We compared our program components to the Teacher Leader Model Standards and added an emphasis on the importance of disciplinary content knowledge. We also identified patterns in science and mathematics teacher leadership that are contextually connected to teachers' instruction in rural high poverty schools. Rural teacher leadership included the importance of building strong teacher–student relationships, providing new academic opportunities for students, encouraging students' success, and building community connections.     

Developing Middle School Students' Interests in STEM via Summer Learning Experiences: See Blue STEM Camp

It is a well‐known fact that, in general, many students have a lack of interest and proficiency in mathematics and science. Therefore, it is imperative that we prepare and inspire all students, specifically students of underrepresented populations, to learn science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) content. Now in its fourth year, See Blue STEM Camp was created in order to expose middle‐level students to a variety of STEM fields and STEM professionals through hands‐on project‐based learning experiences in order to increase their interest in STEM. This paper describes the structure and the activities of the camp. In this innovative project, we utilized an embedded mixed methods study design to investigate the extent middle level students' attitudes, perceptions, and interest in and toward STEM fields and careers changed after participating in an informal learning environment of a five‐day day camp held on the campus of a major university in the mid‐south. The results revealed an increase in their motivation and interest in STEM fields; in fact, there was 3% increase from pre to post in interest in STEM careers. The data also revealed that a majority of the participating middle school students found the STEM content sessions “fun” and engaging, specifically citing the hands‐on experiences they received.     

How Do Students Know What They Learn in Middle School Mathematics Is True?

This article presents ways in which students ascertain that what they have learned in mathematics is true. Students in the middle school (and a few from other grades) were interviewed by prospective and in‐service teachers. Students were asked what they had learned recently in mathematics and how they knew it was true. The answers were grouped by the author according to the justification schemes used by the students in their explanations. Students interviewed used three kinds of justification schemes: externally based, empirical, and analytic. For each kind, examples are provided of students' justifications. Additional insights are included from the reflections of the interviewers. Some suggestions are offered regarding how teachers can help increase their students' ability to give convincing arguments in mathematics.     

Student Interest in Engineering Design‐Based Science

Current reform efforts in science education around the world call on teachers to use integrated approaches to teach science. As a part of such reform efforts in the United States, engineering practices and engineering design have been identified in K–12 science education standards. However, there is relatively little is known about effective ways of teaching science through engineering design. The study explores the approaches or strategies used by a sixth grade science teacher to teach science and engineering in an integrative manner. Classroom observations, teacher interview, and student surveys were used to study the features of engineering integration implemented by the teacher and the changes in student interest in science and engineering by participating in an engineering design‐based science unit. Findings suggest that the teacher explicitly included practices and core ideas from engineering and science; used an engaging, motivating engineering challenge; and provided students with opportunities to be autonomous. Students engaged in the activities in the engineering unit and their interest level slightly increased. The results suggest that the three strategies that the teacher used to teach engineering and science are important foundations of integrated science and engineering education.     

The Effect of a Horseshoe Crab Citizen Science Program on Middle School Student Science Performance and STEM Career Motivation

The purpose of the present quasi‐experimental study was to examine the impact of a horseshoe crab citizen science program on student achievement and science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) career motivation with 86 (n = 86) eighth‐grade students. The treatment group conducted fieldwork with naturalists and collected data for a professional biologist studying horseshoe crab speciation and a mock survey. The comparison group studied curriculum related to horseshoe crabs in the science classroom. A series of measures related to self‐efficacy, interest, outcome expectations, choice goals, and content knowledge were given to participants before and after the intervention. It was hypothesized that students would report higher motivational beliefs regarding science and show higher levels of achievement following the intervention than the comparison group. Support was shown for most of the hypotheses. In addition, path analyses indicated that students' motivational beliefs influence content knowledge and outcome expectations, which in turn affect their career goals. These results have implications for incorporating authentic fieldwork within a formal school structure as an effective method for promoting student achievement and STEM career motivation.     

Behind the Masks: Identifying Students' Competencies for Learning Mathematics and Science in Urban Settings

Three mathematics and science educators reexamine and reflect on their teaching within the context of the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS) and National Council of Mathematics' call to make math and science education accessible to all. The paper highlights the importance of teachers reflecting on their teaching practices in order to create opportunities for their students especially those in the urban setting. The educators argue that teachers' reflection on their teaching can cause them to recognize and validate their students' ways of knowing as they identify the students' hidden/concealed abilities that are often masked by their behaviors. The educators discuss their experiences and highlight the lessons that they learned about ways to prepare teachers to successfully teach math and science students in urban settings. Culturally responsive pedagogy and cultural competency are critical skills that teachers need to develop in order to teach all children, especially those in the math and science classroom in the urban setting.     

Science Teacher Efficacy and Outcome Expectancy as Predictors of Students' End‐of‐Instruction (EOI) Biology I Test Scores

The purpose of this study was to compare teacher efficacy beliefs of secondary Biology I teachers whose students' mean scores on the statewide End‐of‐Instruction (EOI) Biology I test met or exceeded the state academic proficiency level (Proficient Group) to teacher efficacy beliefs of secondary Biology I teachers whose students' mean scores on the EOI Biology I test fell below the state academic proficiency level (Non‐proficient Group). The mean difference on the Personal Science Teaching Efficacy (PSTE) subscale scores between the two groups was not statistically significant. This indicates that personal science teaching efficacy was not statistically related to how a teacher s students scored on the EOI Biology I test. The mean difference on the Science Teaching Outcome Expectancy (STOE) subscale scores demonstrated a statistically significant difference between the science teaching outcome expectancy of the Non‐proficient Group and Proficient Group teachers. Proficient Group teachers had significantly higher STOE scores than teachers Non‐proficient Group teachers. This finding suggests that End‐of‐Instruction Biology I test scores were related to the expectations that a teacher held for his/her students to learn biology regardless of student home environment, availability of classroom materials, or student motivation.     

The Indiana Science Initiative: Lessons from a Classroom Observation Study

The Indiana Science Initiative (ISI) is a systemic effort to reform K–8 science education. The program provides teachers with professional development, reform‐oriented science modules, and materials support. To examine the impact of the initiative's professional development, a participant observation study was conducted in the program's pilot year. Five teachers in grades 3–6 were observed and interviewed as they implemented the ISI‐provided modules. Analysis of the observation data revealed that the teachers incorporated each of the features of inquiry science instruction. However, they did not consistently teach in a way that was aligned with the intent of the ISI. Examination of interview data provided insight into influences on teachers' use of inquiry with the ISI‐provided modules. These data revealed that teachers were aware of the intent of the ISI and attempted to align their instruction. However, teachers were influenced by their perceptions of students' behavior and abilities as well as timing and the appropriate level of teacher control needed to facilitate science instruction. The research suggests that professional development activities should prepare teachers to help learners evaluate explanations against alternatives, connect explanations to scientific knowledge, and provide strategies to address teachers' perceptions of students, timing, and teacher control.     

What Can Be Learned From Informal Student Writings in a Science Context?

This exploratory study analyzed four informal science-related writing tasks produced by 374 seventh-grade students (172 boys and 202 girls) from two schools with different socioeconomic populations. The study demonstrates that students' informal writing in science contexts can provide a rich source of information regarding students' cognitive and attitudinal engagement with science. Students' writing reflects the level at which students understand previously learned science-related ideas and gives insight into themes and issues they would be interested in learning. This study further demonstrates how students organize and personalize science knowledge acquired inside as well as outside of school when given novel and unconventional (informal) science-related tasks. The study also demonstrates that informal writing tasks encourage students to express opinions, values, and attitudes associated with science and science learning. Examples are provided of similarities and differences in students' writing preferences and in the quality of writing produced by boys and girls. Suggestions for further studies for teachers and researchers are discussed.     

Enhancing Formative Assessment Practice and Encouraging Middle School Mathematics Engagement and Persistence

In the transition to middle school, and during the middle school years, students' motivation for mathematics tends to decline from what it was during elementary school. Formative assessment strategies in mathematics can help support motivation by building confidence for challenging tasks. In this study, the authors developed and piloted a professional development program, Learning to Use Formative Assessment in Mathematics with the Assessment Work Sample Method (AWSM) to build middle school math teachers' understanding of the characteristics of high‐quality formative assessment processes and increases their ability to use them in their classrooms. AWSM proved to be feasible to implement in the middle school setting. It improved teachers' practice of formative assessment, especially in their feedback practices, regardless of their pedagogical content knowledge at entry. Results from focus groups suggested that teachers were better able to implement ungraded practice and student self‐ and peer‐assessment after AWSM, and that students were more willing to engage in complex problem solving.     

Science Talk: Preservice Teachers Facilitating Science Learning in Diverse Afterschool Environments

The purpose of this study was to assess the impact a community‐based service learning program might have on preservice teachers' science instruction during student teaching. Designed to promote science inquiry, preservice teachers learned how to offer students more opportunities to develop their own ways of thinking through utilization of an afterschool science program that provided them extended opportunities to practice their science teaching skills. Three preservice teachers were followed to examine and evaluate the transfer of this experience to their student teaching classroom. Investigation methods included field observations and semi‐structured, individual interviews. Findings indicate that preservice teachers expanded their ideas of science inquiry instruction to include multiple modes of formative assessment, while also struggling with the desire to give students the correct answer. While the participants' experiences are few in number, the potential of afterschool teaching experience serving as an effective learning experience in preservice teacher preparation is significant. With the constraints of high‐stakes testing, community‐based service learning teaching opportunities for elementary and middle‐school preservice teachers can support both the development and refinement of inquiry instruction skills.     

Effects of variation theory approach in teaching and learning of algebra on urban and rural students’ algebraic achievement and motivation

This study investigates the effect of utilizing variation theory approach (VTA) on students' algebraic achievement and their motivation in learning algebra. The study used quasi-experimental non-equivalent control group research design. It involved 114 Form Two students in four intact classes (two classes were from an urban school, another two classes from a rural school). The first group of students from each school learnt algebra in class which used the VTA, while the second group of students in each school learnt algebra through conventional teaching approach. Two-way analysis of covariance and two-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) were used to analyse the data collected. The result of this study indicated that the use of VTA has significant effect on both urban and rural students' algebraic achievement. There were evidences that VTA has significant effect on rural VTA students' overall motivation in its five subscales: attention, relevance, confidence, satisfaction and interest but it was not so for urban VTA students' motivation. This study provides further empirical evidence that utilization of variation theory as pedagogical guide can promote the teaching and learning of Form Two Algebra topics in urban and rural secondary school classrooms.     

Gender Differences in Learning Constructs,Shifts in Learning Constructs,and Their Relationship to Course Achievement in a Structured Inquiry,Yearlong College Physics Course for Life Science Majors

This study investigated differences and shifts in learning and motivation constructs among male and female students in a nonmajors, yearlong structured inquiry college physics course and examined how these variables were related to physics understanding and course achievement. Tests and questionnaires measured students' learning approaches, motivational goals, self‐efficacy, epistemological beliefs, scientific reasoning abilities, and understanding of central physics concepts at the beginning and end of the course. Course achievement scores were also obtained. The findings showed that male students had significantly higher self‐efficacy, performance goals, and physics understanding compared to females, which persisted throughout the course. Differential shifts were found in students' meaningful learning approaches, with females tending to use less meaningful learning from beginning to end of the course; and males using more meaningful learning over this time period. For both males and females, self‐efficacy significantly predicted physics understanding and course achievement. For females, higher reasoning ability was also a significant predictor of understanding and achievement; whereas for males, learning goals and rote learning were significant predictors, but in a negative direction. The findings reveal that different variables of learning and motivation may be important for females' success in inquiry physics compared to males. Instructors should be cognizant of those needs in order to best help all students learn and achieve in college physics.     

The Impact on Incorporating Collaborative Concept Mapping with Coteaching Techniques in Elementary Science Classes

The purpose of this research was to evaluate a collaborative concept‐mapping technique that was integrated into coteaching in fourth‐grade science classes in order to examine students' performance and attitudes toward the experimental teaching method. There are two fourth‐grade science teachers and four classes with a total of 114 students involved in the study. This study used a mixed method design, incorporating both quantitative and qualitative techniques. The findings showed that the two teaching methods obtained significant difference with respect to students' test scores. Using collaborative concept mapping to learn science could increase the opportunity of discussion between peers, thus fostering better organization and understanding the content. In addition, coteaching could enable teachers to share their expertise with one another. It could facilitate the implementation of collaborative concept mapping and the construction of student's concept mapping. Team teachers' attitude could affect the students' learning performance. However, some of the students had negative views on drawing concept maps because they found it was troublesome to write down many words, difficult to draw and arrange proposition, and time‐consuming. Coteachers' instant feedback and students' journal writing could guide and examine the students' concept maps to facilitate their cognitive learning.