Odd–Even Alternation in Tautomeric Porous Organic Cages with Exceptional Chemical Stability

Amine‐linked (C−NH) porous organic cages (POCs) are preferred over the imine‐linked (C=N) POCs owing to their enhanced chemical stability. In general, amine‐linked cages, obtained by the reduction of corresponding imines, are not shape‐persistent in the crystalline form. Moreover, they require multistep synthesis. Herein, a one‐pot synthesis of four new amine‐linked organic cages by the reaction of 1,3,5‐triformylphloroglucinol (Tp) with different analogues of alkanediamine is reported. The POCs resulting from the odd diamine (having an odd number of −CH₂ groups) is conformationally eclipsed, while the POCs constructed from even diamines adopt a gauche conformation. This odd–even alternation in the conformation of POCs has been supported by computational calculations. The synthetic strategy hinges on the concept of Schiff base condensation reaction followed by keto–enol tautomerization. This mechanism is the key for the exceptional chemical stability of cages and facilitates their resistance towards acids and bases.     

Molecularly Mixed Composite Membranes for Advanced Separation Processes

Porous organic cages (POCs) are individual soluble, porous molecules. When fabricated into mixed‐matrix membranes (MMMs), the soluble POC molecules have the potential to exhibit intimate molecular‐level mixing with the polymer matrix. POCs have only recently been incorporated into mixed matrix membrane materials, but this process has not yet resulted in significant improvements of membrane performance. Now, vertex‐functionalized amorphous scrambled porous organic cages (ASPOCs) have been utilized as membrane performance enhancers and the amorphous ASPOC mixtures are observed to distribute throughout the matrix without any indication of particle formation or agglomeration, creating unique, molecularly mixed composite membranes. Overall, the molecularly mixed composite membrane provide significant increases in both membrane permeability and selectivity, offering new avenues for creation of membranes with unique properties in industrially relevant separations.     

Transformation of a [4+6] Salicylbisimine Cage to Chemically Robust Amide Cages

In recent years, interest in shape‐persistent organic cage compounds has steadily increased, not least because dynamic covalent bond formation enables such structures to be made in high to excellent yields. One often used type of dynamic bond formation is the generation of an imine bond from an aldehyde and an amine. Although the reversibility of the imine bond formation is advantageous for high yields, it is disadvantageous for the chemical stability of the compounds. Amide bonds are, in contrast to imine bonds much more robust. Shape‐persistent amide cages have so far been made by irreversible amide bond formations in multiple steps, very often accompanied by low yields. Here, we present an approach to shape‐persistent amide cages by exploiting a high‐yielding reversible cage formation in the first step, and a Pinnick oxidation as a key step to access the amide cages in just three steps. These chemically robust amide cages can be further transformed by bromination or nitration to allow post‐functionalization in high yields. The impact of the substituents on the gas sorption behavior was also investigated.     

Oriented Two‐Dimensional Porous Organic Cage Crystals

The formation of two‐dimensional (2D) oriented porous organic cage crystals (consisting of imine‐based tetrahedral molecules) on various substrates (such as silicon wafers and glass) by solution‐processing is reported. Insight into the crystallinity, preferred orientation, and cage crystal growth was obtained by experimental and computational techniques. For the first time, structural defects in porous molecular materials were observed directly and the defect concentration could be correlated with crystal growth rate. These oriented crystals suggest potential for future applications, such as solution‐processable molecular crystalline 2D membranes for molecular separations.     

Supramolecular Alloys from Fluorinated Hybrid Tri4Di6 Imine Cages

To create innovative materials, efficient control and engineering of pore sizes and their characteristics, crystallinity and stability is required. Eight hybrid Tri⁴Di⁶ imine cages with a tunable degree of fluorination and one fully fluorinated Tri⁴Di⁶ imine cage are investigated. Although the fluorinated and the non-fluorinated building blocks used herein differ vastly in reactivity, it was possible to gain control over the outcome of the self-assembly process, by carefully controlling the feed ratio. This represents the first hybrid material based on fluorinated/hydrogenated porous organic cages (POCs). These cages with unlimited miscibility in the solid state were obtained as highly crystalline samples after recrystallization and even showed retention of the crystal lattice, forming alloys. All mixtures and the fully fluorinated Tri⁴Di⁶ imine cage were analyzed by MALDI-MS, single-crystal XRD, powder XRD and in regard to thermal stability (TGA).     

PPh3衍生准多孔有机笼在Rh/PPh3体系催化氢甲酰化反应中的应用:增强活性和选择性及可回收利用

多孔有机笼(POCs)由英国利物浦大学的Cooper教授在2009年首次合成,这种多孔小分子材料的出现具有两方面重要意义:(1)开拓了多孔材料领域的一个全新分支,改变了人们对多孔材料的传统认知;(2)由于POCs材料由离散的小分子堆积而成,可溶解于一些常用的有机溶剂中,因此其在材料制备方面具有很好的"溶液成型"性能,该优势是三维延伸网状多孔材料所不具备的.POCs本质上是一种"中心带孔"的有机小分子,由刚性有机分子砌块收敛堆叠而成,其特殊结构在气体吸附与分离等方面表现出很好的应用前景.不同于传统空间延伸网状框架材料(如金属-有机框架材料和共价有机框架材料)及多孔有机聚合物(POPs)材料,POCs是一种在大多数有机溶剂中可溶解的小分子材料,因此在均相催化领域也有很好的应用前景.作为最为经典的有机配体,三苯基膦(PPh3)在金属有机化学和均相催化领域应用十分广泛,如目前均相催化工业应用最成功的典范之一氢甲酰化反应,大多数情况下使用的是PPh3与Rh形成的络合物催化剂.本文首先将PPh3进行醛基官能团化,通过醛基和氨基的收敛缩合形成POCs材料,合成了基于PPh3配体的准多孔有机笼(POC-DICP),利用得到的多孔有机笼制备出类Rh/PPh3均相催化体系的Rh/POC-DICP络合催化体系,并将其应用于氢甲酰化反应.相比于经典的Rh/PPh3均相催化体系,该Rh/POC-DICP催化体系在氢甲酰化反应中不仅展示出了更高的活性和目标产物醛的选择性(醛的化学选择性为97％,醛的正异构比为1.89),而且可以很方便地从均相反应体系中沉淀回收(通过调整溶剂体系极性).在氢甲酰化反应中,Rh/POC-DICP体系显示出了良好的底物适用性,在己烯、庚烯、辛烯和苯乙烯的氢甲酰化反应中均表现出良好的催化活性和醛选择性,同时催化剂回收使用4次,未见催化性能明显下降.X射线单晶衍射、同步辐射及DFT计算等结果表明,Rh/POC-DICP催化体系在氢甲酰化反应中具有较高活性和选择性的原因是POC-DICP多孔有机笼分子的有利的空间咬合角(123.88o)和P原子上相对的缺电子效应.本文设计合成的PPh3衍生的多孔有机笼不仅拓宽了多孔有机笼材料在催化领域的应用,而且为新型配体及络合催化剂的设计、合成及修饰提供了新的思路.     

PPh3衍生准多孔有机笼在Rh/PPh3体系催化氢甲酰化反应中的应用:增强活性和选择性及可回收利用

多孔有机笼(POCs)由英国利物浦大学的Cooper教授在2009年首次合成,这种多孔小分子材料的出现具有两方面重要意义:(1)开拓了多孔材料领域的一个全新分支,改变了人们对多孔材料的传统认知;(2)由于POCs材料由离散的小分子堆积而成,可溶解于一些常用的有机溶剂中,因此其在材料制备方面具有很好的"溶液成型"性能,该优势是三维延伸网状多孔材料所不具备的.POCs本质上是一种"中心带孔"的有机小分子,由刚性有机分子砌块收敛堆叠而成,其特殊结构在气体吸附与分离等方面表现出很好的应用前景.不同于传统空间延伸网状框架材料(如金属-有机框架材料和共价有机框架材料)及多孔有机聚合物(POPs)材料,POCs是一种在大多数有机溶剂中可溶解的小分子材料,因此在均相催化领域也有很好的应用前景.作为最为经典的有机配体,三苯基膦(PPh3)在金属有机化学和均相催化领域应用十分广泛,如目前均相催化工业应用最成功的典范之一氢甲酰化反应,大多数情况下使用的是PPh3与Rh形成的络合物催化剂.本文首先将PPh3进行醛基官能团化,通过醛基和氨基的收敛缩合形成POCs材料,合成了基于PPh3配体的准多孔有机笼(POC-DICP),利用得到的多孔有机笼制备出类Rh/PPh3均相催化体系的Rh/POC-DICP络合催化体系,并将其应用于氢甲酰化反应.相比于经典的Rh/PPh3均相催化体系,该Rh/POC-DICP催化体系在氢甲酰化反应中不仅展示出了更高的活性和目标产物醛的选择性(醛的化学选择性为97％,醛的正异构比为1.89),而且可以很方便地从均相反应体系中沉淀回收(通过调整溶剂体系极性).在氢甲酰化反应中,Rh/POC-DICP体系显示出了良好的底物适用性,在己烯、庚烯、辛烯和苯乙烯的氢甲酰化反应中均表现出良好的催化活性和醛选择性,同时催化剂回收使用4次,未见催化性能明显下降.X射线单晶衍射、同步辐射及DFT计算等结果表明,Rh/POC-DICP催化体系在氢甲酰化反应中具有较高活性和选择性的原因是POC-DICP多孔有机笼分子的有利的空间咬合角(123.88o)和P原子上相对的缺电子效应.本文设计合成的PPh3衍生的多孔有机笼不仅拓宽了多孔有机笼材料在催化领域的应用,而且为新型配体及络合催化剂的设计、合成及修饰提供了新的思路.     

A MOF@COF Composite with Enhanced Uptake through Interfacial Pore Generation

Herein, we describe a new class of porous composites comprising metal–organic framework (MOF) crystals confined in single spherical matrices made of packed covalent‐organic framework (COF) nanocrystals. These MOF@COF composites are synthesized through a two‐step method of spray‐drying and subsequent amorphous (imine‐based polymer)‐to‐crystalline (imine‐based COF) transformation. This transformation around the MOF crystals generates micro‐ and mesopores at the MOF/COF interface that provide far superior porosity compared to that of the constituent MOF and COF components added together. We report that water sorption in these new pores occurs within the same pressure window as in the COF pores. Our new MOF@COF composites, with their additional pores at the MOF/COF interface, should have implications for the development of new composites.     

From Discrete Molecular Cages to a Network of Cages Exhibiting Enhanced CO2 Adsorption Capacity

We have adopted the concept of “cage to frameworks” to successfully produce a Na–N connected coordination networked cage Na‐NC1 by using a [3+6] porous imine‐linked organic cage NC1 (Nanjing Cage 1) as the precursor. It is found that Na‐NC1 exhibits hierarchical porosity (inherent permanent voids and interconnected channel) and gas sorption measurements reveal a significantly enhanced CO₂ uptake (1093 cm³ g⁻¹ at 23 bar and 273 K) than that of NC1 (162 cm³ g⁻¹ under the same conditions). In addition, Na‐NC1 exhibits very low CO₂ adsorption enthalpy making it a good candidate for porous materials with both high CO₂ storage and low adsorption enthalpy.     

Hydrogen‐Bond‐Driven Controlled Molecular Marriage in Covalent Cages

A supramolecular approach that uses hydrogen‐bonding interaction as a driving force to accomplish exceptional self‐sorting in the formation of imine‐based covalent organic cages is discussed. Utilizing the dynamic covalent chemistry approach from three geometrically similar dialdehydes ( A , B , and D ) and the flexible triamine tris(2‐aminoethyl)amine ( X ), three new [3+2] self‐assembled nanoscopic organic cages have been synthesized and fully characterized by various techniques. When a complex mixture of the dialdehydes and triamine X was subjected to reaction, it was found that only dialdehyde B (which has OH groups for H‐bonding) reacted to form the corresponding cage B₃X₂ selectively. Surprisingly, the same reaction in the absence of aldehyde B yielded a mixture of products. Theoretical and experimental investigations are in complete agreement that the presence of the hydroxyl moiety adjacent to the aldehyde functionality in B is responsible for the selective formation of cage B₃X₂ from a complex reaction mixture. This spectacular selection was further analyzed by transforming a nonpreferred (non‐hydroxy) cage into a preferred (hydroxy) cage B₃X₂ by treating the former with aldehyde B . The role of the H‐bond in partner selection in a mixture of two dialdehydes and two amines has also been established. Moreover, an example of unconventional imine bond metathesis in organic cage‐to‐cage transformation is reported.     

Chiral Phosphoric Acids in Metal–Organic Frameworks with Enhanced Acidity and Tunable Catalytic Selectivity

Chiral phosphoric acids are incorporated into indium‐based metal–organic frameworks (In‐MOFs) by sterically preventing them from coordination. This concept leads to the synthesis of three chiral porous 3D In‐MOFs with different network topologies constructed from three enantiopure 1,1′‐biphenol‐phosphoric acid derived tetracarboxylate linkers. More importantly, all the uncoordinated phosphoric acid groups are periodically aligned within the channels and display significantly enhanced acidity compared to the non‐immobilized acids. This facilitates the Brønsted acid catalysis of asymmetric condensation/amine addition and imine reduction. The enantioselectivities can be tuned (up to >99 % ee) by varying the substituents to achieve a nearly linear correlation with the concentrations of steric bulky groups in the MOFs. DFT calculations suggest that the framework provides a chiral confined microenvironment that dictates both selectivity and reactivity of chiral MOFs.     

Homochiral MOF–Polymer Mixed Matrix Membranes for Efficient Separation of Chiral Molecules

Homochiral metal–organic framework (MOF) membranes have been recently reported for chiral separations. However, only a few high‐quality homochiral polycrystalline MOF membranes have been fabricated due to the difficulty in crystallization of a chiral MOF layer without defects on porous substrates. Alternatively, mixed matrix membranes (MMMs), which combine potential advantages of MOFs and polymers, have been widely demonstrated for gas separation and water purification. Here we report novel homochiral MOF–polymer MMMs for efficient chiral separation. Homochirality was successfully incorporated into achiral MIL‐53‐NH₂ nanocrystals by post‐synthetic modification with amino acids, such as l ‐histidine (l ‐His) and l ‐glutamic acid (l ‐Glu). The MIL‐53‐NH‐l ‐His and MIL‐53‐NH‐l ‐Glu nanocrystals were then embedded into polyethersulfone (PES) matrix to form homochiral MMMs, which exhibited excellent enantioselectivity for racemic 1‐phenylethanol with the highest enantiomeric excess value up to 100 %. This work, as an example, demonstrates the feasibility of fabricating diverse large‐scale homochiral MOF‐based MMMs for chiral separation.     

Chiral proline-substituted porous organic cages in asymmetric organocatalysis

The efficient preparation of chiral porous organic cages (POCs) with specific functions is challenging, and their application in asymmetric catalysis has not previously been explored. In this work, we have achieved the construction of chiral POCs based on a supramolecular tetraformyl-resorcin[4]arene scaffold with different chiral proline-modified diamine ligands and utilizing dynamic imine chemistry. The incorporation of V-shaped or linear chiral diamines affords the [4 + 8] square prism and [6 + 12] octahedral POCs respectively. The appended chiral proline moieties in such POCs make them highly active supramolecular nanoreactors for asymmetric aldol reactions, delivering up to 92% ee. The spatial distribution of chiral catalytic sites in these two types of POCs greatly affects their catalytic activities and enantioselectivities. This work not only lays a foundation for the asymmetric catalytic application of chiral POCs, but also contributes to our understanding of the catalytic function of biomimetic supramolecular systems.

Two calix[4]resorcinarene-based chiral POCs with different self-assembly forms were constructed. The difference in the spatial distribution of chiral organocatalytic sites leads to the two chiral POCs exhibiting distinct stereoselectivities.     

Mixed‐Matrix Membranes

Research into extended porous materials such as metal‐organic frameworks (MOFs) and porous organic frameworks (POFs), as well as the analogous metal‐organic polyhedra (MOPs) and porous organic cages (POCs), has blossomed over the last decade. Given their chemical and structural variability and notable porosity, MOFs have been proposed as adsorbents for industrial gas separations and also as promising filler components for high‐performance mixed‐matrix membranes (MMMs). Research in this area has focused on enhancing the chemical compatibility of the MOF and polymer phases by judiciously functionalizing the organic linkers of the MOF, modifying the MOF surface chemistry, and, more recently, exploring how particle size, morphology, and distribution enhance separation performance. Other filler materials, including POFs, MOPs, and POCs, are also being explored as additives for MMMs and have shown remarkable anti‐aging performance and excellent chemical compatibility with commercially available polymers. This Review briefly outlines the state‐of‐the‐art in MOF‐MMM fabrication, and the more recent use of POFs and molecular additives.     

Trapping White Phosphorus within a Purely Organic Molecular Container Produced by Imine Condensation

Three tetrahedral organic cages have been obtained by condensing a triamino linker with a set of three ostensibly analogous triformyl precursors. Despite the large number of imine bonds formed, the corresponding cages were obtained in exceptionally high yields. Both theory and experimental results demonstrate that intramolecular CH⋅⋅⋅π interactions within all of the cage frameworks play an important role in abetting the condensations and contributing to the near‐quantitative synthetic yields. The three cages of this study exhibit high thermodynamic and kinetic stability. A variety of small neutral guest molecules with complementary sizes and geometries may be used as templates in the cage forming reactions. Among the guests that may be used in this way is white phosphorus (P₄), whose inherent reactivity towards oxygen is almost fully attenuated when bound within one of the cages.     

Periphery‐Functionalized Porous Organic Cages

By synthesizing derivatives of a trans‐1,2‐diaminocyclohexane precursor, three new functionalized porous organic cages were prepared with different chemical functionalities on the cage periphery. The introduction of twelve methyl groups ( CC16 ) resulted in frustration of the cage packing mode, which more than doubled the surface area compared to the parent cage, CC3 . The analogous installation of twelve hydroxyl groups provided an imine cage ( CC17 ) that combines permanent porosity with the potential for post‐synthetic modification of the cage exterior. Finally, the incorporation of bulky dihydroethanoanthracene groups was found to direct self‐assembly towards the formation of a larger [8+12] cage, rather than the expected [4+6], cage molecule ( CC18 ). However, CC18 was found to be non‐porous, most likely due to cage collapse upon desolvation.     

Introduction of d‐Amino Acids in Minimalistic Peptide Substrates by an S‐Adenosyl‐l‐Methionine Radical Epimerase

Post‐translational modifying enzymes from the S‐adenosyl‐l ‐methionine (AdoMet) radical superfamily garner attention due to their ability to accomplish challenging biochemical reactions. Among them, a family of AdoMet radical epimerases catalyze irreversible l ‐ to d ‐amino acid transformations of diverse residues, including 18 sites in the complex sponge‐derived polytheonamide toxins. Herein, the in vitro activity of the model epimerase OspD is reported and its catalytic mechanism and substrate flexibility is investigated. The wild‐type enzyme was capable of leader‐independent epimerization of not only the stand‐alone core peptide, but also truncated and cyclic core variants. Introduction of d ‐amino acids can drastically alter the stability, structure, and activity of peptides; thus, epimerases offer opportunities in peptide bioengineering.     

Multifunctional Tubular Organic Cage‐Supported Ultrafine Palladium Nanoparticles for Sequential Catalysis

The imine condensation reaction of 5,5′‐(benzo[c][1,2,5]thiadiazole‐4,7‐diyl)diisophthalaldehyde with cyclohexanediamine resulted in a shape‐persistent multifunctional tubular organic cage (MTC1). It exhibits selective fluorescence sensing towards divalent Pd ions with a very low detection limit (38 ppb), suggesting effective complexation between these two species. Subsequent reduction of MTC1 and Pd(OAc)₂ with NaBH₄ afforded a cage‐supported catalyst with well‐dispersed ultrafine Pd nanoparticles (NPs) in a narrow size distribution (1.9±0.4 nm), denoted as Pd@MTC1‐1/5. Such ultrafine Pd NPs in Pd@MTC1‐1/5, in cooperation with photocatalytically active MTC1, enable efficient sequential reactions involving visible light‐induced aerobic hydroxylation of 4‐nitrophenylboronic acid to 4‐nitrophenol and the following hydride reduction with NaBH₄. This is the first example of a multifunctional organic cage capable of sensing, directing nanoparticle growth, and catalyzing sequential reactions.     

Highly Enantioselective Extraction of Underivatized Amino Acids by the Uryl‐Pendant Hydroxyphenyl‐Binol Ketone

The hydroxyphenyl chiral ketone, (S)‐ 3 , reacts with D ‐amino acids bearing hydrophobic side chains exclusively over the L ‐amino acids in a two‐phase liquid–liquid extraction, and thus acts as a highly stereoselective extractant. Calculations for the energy‐minimized structures for the imine diastereomers and the comparison of the selectivities with other phenyl ketones, (S)‐ 4 and (S)‐ 5 , demonstrate that the hydrogen bond between the carboxylate group and the phenolic hydroxyl group contributes to the remarkable enantioselectivities. The multiple hydrogen bonds present in the imine of (S)‐ 3 reinforce the rigidity, and results in the difference between the stabilities of the imine diastereomers. The imine could be hydrolyzed in methanolic HCl solution, and the extraction of the evaporated residues revived the organic layer of (S)‐ 3 , which could enter into a new extractive cycle and leaves the D ‐amino acid with enantiomeric excess (ee) values of over 97 % in the aqueous layer.     

Organic Imine Cages: Molecular Marriage and Applications

Imine condensation has been known to chemists for more than a century and is used extensively to synthesize large organic cages of defined shapes and sizes. Surprisingly, in the context of the synthetic methods for organic imine cages (OICs), a self‐sorting/self‐selection (molecular marriage) process has been overlooked over the years. Such processes are omnipresent in nature, from the creation of galaxies to the formation of the smallest building blocks of life (the cell). Such processes have the incredible ability to guide a system toward the formation of a specific product or products out of a collection of equally probable multiple possibilities. This Minireview sheds light on new opportunities in cage design offered by the self‐sorting/self‐selection protocol in OICs. Recent efforts to explore organic cages for various exciting new applications are discussed; for example, for detection of harmful small organic molecules, as templates for nucleation of metal nanoparticles (MNPs), and as proton‐conducting materials.