Residual stresses near a rail end

Stress fields near a cut end of a rail containing longitudinal residual stress typical of roller-straightened rail were studied using analysis and a finite element model. For a self-equilibrating residual stress distribution with equal maximum and minimum stresses, the distance to reach 95% of the mid-rail residual stress field is from 0.7 to 1.8 times the rail height, with the finite element model predicting a length of 1.1 times the rail height. This gives a measure of the accuracy of the simpler analytical models. At the rail end, the longitudinal residual stress goes to zero, and the vertical residual stress near mid-web reaches a maximum of approximately 27 ksi (186 MPa) (1.35 times the maximum mid-rail longitudinal residual stress of 20 ksi, or 138 MPa). The maximum shear stresses are 6 ksi (41 MPa) and −8 ksi (−55 MPa) near the head-web and web-base intersections, respectively, approximately 2 in. (51 mm) from the end of a 7.3 in. (185 mm) high rail. The shear stress is zero at the cut end and in mid-rail. The worst possible end-crack is a horizontal web crack in the vertical residual stress field at the rail end. The stress intensity K_I on such a crack is estimated to reach 20 ksi√in. (22 MPa√m) for cracks 0.5 in. (13mm) long. This is already 0.4 to 0.8 times K_I for carbon and alloy rails, and about 0.5 times K_Ic for a long crack.     

Ultrasonic Measurements of Residual Stresses Caused by Severe Thermomechanical Deformation during FSW

In engineering processes, residual stresses can be intense once high plastic deformation and temperature gradient are involved. This is exactly the case for friction stir welding (FSW) in which both rotational and translational movements of the tool induce extreme temperature gradient and plastic deformation. In this research, the extents of longitudinal and transverse residual stresses are measured within the AA7075-T6 plates welded through FSW process using ultrasonic method. According to the obtained results, it can be found that the residual stress is of the tensile type adjacent to the welding line whereas it is of the compressive type far from the welding line. Another observation is that the longitudinal residual stresses are considerably greater than the transverse residual stresses. Furthermore, with the aim of investigating the effects of rotation and traverse velocities of the tool on residual stress, experiments are carried out at three different rotation and traverse velocities. Based on the acquired results, it is observed that upon increasing the rotation and traverse velocities, the longitudinal and transverse residual stresses decrease and increase, respectively.     

Measuring Inaccessible Residual Stresses Using Multiple Methods and Superposition

The traditional contour method maps a single component of residual stress by cutting a body carefully in two and measuring the contour of the cut surface. The cut also exposes previously inaccessible regions of the body to residual stress measurement using a variety of other techniques, but the stresses have been changed by the relaxation after cutting. In this paper, it is shown that superposition of stresses measured post-cutting with results from the contour method analysis can determine the original (pre-cut) residual stresses. The general superposition theory using Bueckner’s principle is developed and limitations are discussed. The procedure is experimentally demonstrated by determining the triaxial residual stress state on a cross section plane. The 2024-T351 aluminum alloy test specimen was a disk plastically indented to produce multiaxial residual stresses. After cutting the disk in half, the stresses on the cut surface of one half were determined with X-ray diffraction and with hole drilling on the other half. To determine the original residual stresses, the measured surface stresses were superimposed with the change stress calculated by the contour method. Within uncertainty, the results agreed with neutron diffraction measurements taken on an uncut disk.     

Residual stress field and reduction of stress intensity factors in cold-worked holes

Closed-form and semi-analytical solutions are obtained for the residual stress distributions in a plate caused by pressure acting on a central circular hole, representing the cold-work process. The material is elastic–perfectly plastic. Both Tresca and von Mises yield criteria are used and the corresponding residual stress distributions are compared. The relation between the dimension of the plastic zone and the value of internal pressure is presented. The relation between the magnitude of the residual stresses and the remote uniform tensile stress required to open symmetrical radial cracks is also presented. The reduction of the stress intensity factors of cracked open and riveted holes as a function of the internal pressure applied (or mandrel radial displacement) is investigated using numerical models for both an elastic–perfectly plastic material and for an Al 2024-T3 Alclad aluminum alloy.     

Residual stress prediction and determination in 7010 aluminum alloy forgings

Precipitation-hardened aluminum alloys gain their high strength through heat treatment involving a severe quenching operation, which can have the adverse effect of introducing residual stresses. The finite element code ABAQUS is used to simulate the quenching of aluminum alloy 7010 in an attempt to predict the residual stress distribution that develops in simple shapes. The rate of heat transfer from the material is determined using the finite element method to predict the heat transfer coefficient from surface cooling curves achieved experimentally. The flow stress of the material is assumed to be strain rate dependent and to behave in a perfectly plastic manner. The predicted residual stress magnitudes and directions are compared to values determined using the holedrilling strain gage method and the X-ray diffraction technique.     

Thermal Stress Measurement in Continuous Welded Rails Using the Hole-Drilling Method

The absence of expansion joints in Continuous Welded Rail has created the need for the railroad industry to determine the in-situ thermal stress levels for rail buckling and breakage prevention. This paper explores the hole-drilling method as a possible solution to this problem. A new set of calibration coefficients to compute the stress field relieved by fine hole depth increments required by the high strength steel was determined. The new calibration coefficients were experimentally validated on an aluminum plate subjected to a known uniaxial load. The thermal stress levels of constrained rails were estimated after compensation for the residual stress components, based on statistical relationships developed experimentally between the longitudinal and the vertical residual stresses. The results showed that the hole-drilling procedure, with appropriate calibration coefficients and residual stress compensation, can estimate the in-situ rail thermal stresses with an expected accuracy that is within the industry acceptable levels.     

高温升率下LY12铝合金拉伸破坏及其机理的研究

使用Gleeble1500热力模拟实验系统研究了温升率及其历史对LY12铝合金拉伸破坏的影响。对采用不同温升率加热到给定温度后的试件的拉伸试验表明,相同工作温度下经历较高温升率历史的试件的强度较低;以不同温升率对不同预载应力水平的试件快速加热直至破坏,发现预载应力相同时经历较高温升率试件的失效温度较低．对试件断口附近材料金相组织的分析表明,当工作温度或预载应力水平相同时,较高温升率下材料的微缺陷明显增加．高温升率造成的局部热失配及材料微观组织结构的损伤,不同温度、应力和时间下材料的再结晶程度等对材料的宏观本构行为及失效具有重要影响．     

Residual stresses in cyclically loaded two-phase solid

A plane-stress finite element model of a two-phase solid is analyzed for residual stresses that develop under cyclic loading. One phase is assumed to be dilute and to yield at stresses below those of the matrix. Simple triangular constant strain finite elements are used and the soft material is assumed to be a linear work hardening one. The load is applied incrementally and the stiffness matrix is updated at each step to its tangential values. The emphasis is on the residual stresses which develop within the soft element and in the neighborhood. Several distributions of soft material were examined. In the cases we consider, the residual stresses change sign on each load cycle, that is, they are not constant. They are also an appreciable percentage of the yield stress of the soft phase. The residual stresses primarily develop in the first cycle and settle down in just a few cycles. The location of a soft element is somewhat of a factor in how far away its effect is felt by other elements. In addition to the calculation of residual stresses, the temperature changes are also calculated. The plastic work is converted into heat in the soft elements and this in turn is conducted to the cooler elastic matrix. It is found that adiabatic conditions can be assumed for steel specimens for strain rates above .033 sec⁻¹ and at rates above .23 sec⁻¹ for aluminum.     

Measurement and Prediction of Machining Induced Redistribution of Residual Stress in the Aluminium Alloy 7449

The residual stress distributions in two 7449 aluminium alloy rectilinear blocks have been determined using neutron diffraction. Heat treatment included cold water immersion quenching and a period of precipitation hardening. Quenching induced very high magnitude residual stresses into the two blocks. One block was measured in this condition while the other was incrementally machined by milling to half thickness. Neutron diffraction measurements were made on the milled half thickness block at equivalent locations to the unmachined block. This permitted through thickness measurements from both blocks to be compared, revealing the redistribution of residual stresses induced by machining. A square cross section post in the centre of the machined face was left to act as a stress free reference sample. The distortions arising on the face opposite to that being milled were measured using a co-ordinate measuring machine. The residual stresses and distortion arising in the blocks have been compared to finite element analysis prediction and found to generally agree. Material removal only caused distortion and the residual stresses to redistribute; there was no stress relaxation evident.     

The application and extension of Sachs method

In this paper, we present the simplification of Sachs formulas for the measurement and calculation of the residual stresses of the cylinder only with the plane stresses. Furthermore, we present the method for the measurement and calculation of the residual stresses of the cylinder not only with the finite length but with the longitudinal stress. These can be applied to the investigation on the residual stresses of the autofretted gun tube.Communicated by Loo Wen-da     

A more comprehensive method for yield locus construction for metallic alloys and composites

Conventional methods for constructing yield loci rely on the assumption that nonlinear strains are permanent strains, which is not always the case. A nickel-base alloy, SiC fiber-reinforced titanium, an aluminum alloy, and particlereinforced aluminum have been observed to violate this assumption. We present a method for constructing yield loci using a proof strain criterion for the permanent strain that relies on cyclic, proportional, probes of the yield surface. Two criteria are implemented: one for stress reversal and one for yielding. The method is demonstrated by the construction of initial and subsequent yield loci in the axial-shear stress plane using thin-walled tubular specimens. Results are presented for 6061-T6 aluminum as well as for 6092/SiC/17.5p-T6, which is 6092 aluminum reinforced with 17.5 volume percent silicon carbide particulate. The centers of the initial yield loci for the composite are eccentric to the origin of the stress plane most likely because of the residual stresses induced during processing. Material hardening due to multiaxial stress states can be described by tracking evolution of the subsequent yield surfaces and here hardening of the particulate composite was primarily kinematic     

A magnetic method for the determination of residual stress

A magnetic method for the measurement of residual longitudinal stress in the outer portions of cylindrical bars is developed and applied to nickel and steel. It involves measurement of the reversible effective permeability over a range of frequency of the applied alternating field. Special composites specimens, in which any desired level of residual stress can be produced, serve as idealized test specimens. Magnetic stress measurements made on cold-drawn, machined and quenched rods are compared with measurements by X-ray diffraction and mechanical relaxation (slitting). A combination of magnetic and X-ray measurements yields qualitative information about the stress gradient in the outer portion of a bar. A rapid magnetic-test method, suitable for practical application, is described.     

Computation of Bending Stress in Pipes Using Weighted Hole-Drilling and DSPI Measurements

Pipelines usually operate under bending and axial stresses, caused by external loads, combined with residual stress distributions (manufacturing stresses), which affect the mechanical behavior of the pipe. Despite its semi-destructive nature, the hole drilling technique and digital speckle pattern interferometry (DSPI) can be applied to determine combined stresses along a cross-section. To achieve this, a set of equally-spaced angular points spread along the cross-section perimeter are measured. For non-uniform stress computations the hole drilling technique frequently gives a detailed stress distribution which is related to the external layer (1 mm) of the pipeline. In order to obtain a representative and unique value for the stress acting at each point, a novel approach can be used to evaluate a weighted average stress from each available stress distribution and to identify possible outlier measured points. In accordance with this approach, weighting coefficients are calculated using some particular features found in the residual stress profiles of pipelines. A reference bending test bench was used to evaluate the proposed methodology and it verified good agreement between the reference and computed stresses.     

Effect of mechanical stresses on the magnetic characteristics of pipe steel

The effect of elastic deformation in tension (compression) torsion, internal pressure loading, and their combination on the magnetic characteristics of 09G2S pipe steel is studied. It is found that in the cases of compression, torsion, and internal pressure loading, the coercive force, residual induction, and maximum magnetic permeability are uniquely dependent on the stress. It is shown that the strength of the applied magnetic field in which the magnetostriction becomes negative decreases under the action of tensile stresses. It is found that in the case of combined tension (compression) and torsion, shear stresses weaken the effect of normal stresses on the magnetic properties. In the case of a combination of all three types of loading, increasing internal pressure leads to an increase in the coercive force and a decrease in the residual induction and maximum magnetic permeability. Measurement results were used to plot the dependence of the stress intensity on the coercive force for different values of the Lode parameter, which determines the type of stress state of the object.     

Effect of thermal exposure on the residual stress relaxation in a hardened cylindrical sample under creep conditions

This paper describes the effect of thermal exposure (high-temperature exposure) (T = 675?C) on the residual creep stress relaxation in a surface hardened solid cylindrical sample made of ZhS6UVI alloy. The analysis is carried out with the use of experimental data for residual stresses after micro-shot peening and exposures to temperatures equal to T = 675?C during 50, 150, and 300 h. The paper presents the technique for solving the boundary-value creep problem for the hardened cylindrical sample with the initial stress–strain state under the condition of thermal exposure. The uniaxial experimental creep curves obtained under constant stresses of 500, 530, 570, and 600 MPa are used to construct the models describing the primary and secondary stages of creep. The calculated and experimental data for the longitudinal (axial) tensor components of residual stresses are compared, and their satisfactory agreement is determined.     

Application of a kinematic hardening viscoplasticity model with thresholds to the residual stress relaxation

The life analysis of engine components needs to take into account the residual stress relaxation induced by cyclic service loads. The paper recalls a new class of constitutive equations for cyclic viscoplasticity, using a series of kinematic hardening models with thresholds. The equations are introduced within a recently enlarged thermodynamic framework. Some attention is focused to the relations with multisurface approaches and to a specific determination procedure of the model parameters. The new model is applied to the calculation of the near surface residual stress relaxation after shot peening, when the structure is submitted to cyclic service loads. The simulated stabilized residual stresses are in good accordance with experimental results obtained on an N18 disk alloy at 650°C. In comparison, the classical model without threshold predicts the complete vanishing of the residual stresses, which is not satisfactory.     

Thermal stress analysis of a silicon carbide/aluminum composite

Thermal deformations and stresses were studied in a silicon-carbide/aluminum filamentary composite at temperatures up to 370°C (700°F). Longitudinal and transverse thermal strains were measured with strain gages and a dilatometer. An elastoplastic micromechanical analysis based on a one-dimensional rule-of-mixtures model and an axisymmetric two-material composite cylinder model was performed. It was established that beyond a critical temperature thermal strains become nonlinear with decreasing longitudinal and increasing transverse thermal-expansion coefficients. This behavior was attributed to the plastic stresses in the aluminum matrix above the critical temperature. An elastoplastic analysis of both micromechanical models was performed to determine the stress distributions and thermal deformation in the fiber and matrix of the composite. While only axial stresses can be determined by the rule-of-mixtures model, the complete triaxial state of stress is established by the composite cylinder model. Theoretical predictions for the two thermal-expansion coefficients were in satisfactory agreement with experimental results.     

Controlling the Cut in Contour Residual Stress Measurements of Electron Beam Welded Ti-6Al-4V Alloy Plates

The multiple cut contour method is applied to map longitudinal and transverse components of residual stress in two nominally identical 50 mm thick electron beam welded Ti-6Al-4V alloy plates, one in the as-welded condition and a second welded plate in a post weld heat treated (PWHT) condition. The accuracy and resolution of the contour method results are directly linked to the quality of the electro-discharge machining cut made. Two symmetric surface contour artefacts associated with cutting titanium, surface bowing and a flared edge, are identified and their influence on residual stresses calculated by the contour method is quantified. The former artefact is controlled by undertaking a series of cutting trials with reduced power settings to find optimal cutting conditions. The latter is mitigated by attaching 5 mm thick sacrificial plates to the wire exit side of the test specimen. The low level of noise in the measured stress profiles for both the as-welded and PWHT plates demonstrates the importance of controlling the quality of a contour cut and the added value of undertaking cutting trials.     

Rail web fracture in the presence of residual stresses

A recent accident involving roller-straighened alloy rail has raised the question of the safety of such rails. This work shows that the residual stresses in roller-straightened rail can indeed self-drive a long web crack. Specifically, the stress intensity K_I due to release of the key component, longitudinal stress, if of the order of the critical stress intensity for initiation K_Ic for both plain carbon and alloy rail. At cut ends, the resulting vertical residual stresses can give rise to K_Ic if there are 0.1–1 in (3–25 mm) cracks. In this work, checks of the existing residual stress data for self-consistency suggest that the data are only accurate within a factor of two. Therefore, a more direct method is proposed for measuring K_I on a web crack by saw-cutting the web.     

Measurement of Applied Stresses and Residual Stresses on a Residual Stress Model by Applying Two Different Loads

Applied stresses on a residual stress model have previously been obtained by measuring the residual stresses and the resultant stresses generated by applying a load. The present paper reports that the applied stresses and the residual stresses on the residual stress model can be obtained by measuring two resultant stresses generated by applying loads of two different magnitudes. In the proposed method, the residual stresses need not be obtained from the residual stress model before applying a load. The residual stress model used to test the proposed method is a circular disk with frozen stresses that is subjected to a diametral compressive load at a certain angle. The applied stresses and the residual stresses on a residual stress model were experimentally and precisely obtained by digital photoelasticity using linearly polarized light.