Connecting the philosophy of chemistry,green chemistry,and moral philosophy

This paper aims to connect philosophy of chemistry, green chemistry, and moral philosophy. We first characterize chemistry by underlining how chemists: (1) co-define chemical bodies, operations, and transformations; (2) always refer to active and context-sensitive bodies to explain the reactions under study; and (3) develop strategies that require and intertwine with a molecular whole, its parts, and the surroundings at the same time within an explanation. We will then point out how green chemists are transforming their current activities in order to act upon the world without jeopardizing life. This part will allow us to highlight that green chemistry follows the three aforementioned characteristics while including the world as a partner, as well as biodegradability and sustainability concerns, into chemical practices. In the third part of this paper, we will show how moral philosophy can help green chemists: (1) identify the consequentialist assumptions that ground their reasoning; and (2) widen the scope of their ethical considerations by integrating the notion of care and that of vulnerability into their arguments. In the fourth part of the paper, we will emphasize how, in return, this investigation could help philosophers querying consequentialism as soon as the consequences of chemical activities over the world are taken into account. Furthermore, we will point out how the philosophy of chemistry provides philosophers with new arguments concerning the key debate about the ‘intrinsic value’ of life, ecosystems and the Earth, in environmental ethics. To conclude, we will highlight how mesology, that is to say the study of ‘milieux’, and the concept of ‘ecumeme’ proposed by the philosopher and geographer Augustin Berque, could become important both for green chemists and moral philosophers in order to investigate our relationships with the Earth.     

Purification of Enantiomeric Mixtures in Enantioselective Synthesis: Overlooked Errors and Scientific Basis of Separation in Achiral Environment

The syntheses of optically active compounds (whether of pharmaceutical or synthetic importance, or as promising candidates as chiral ligands and auxiliaries in asymmetric syntheses) result in the formation of a mixture of products with one enantiomer predominating. Usually, the practice is to use standard open‐column chromatography for the first purification step in an enantioselective synthesis; the workup of the reaction product by crystallization or achiral chromatography would mask the real efficiency of the enantioselective methodology, since enantiomeric ratio (er) of the product may change by any of these methods. Most of the synthetic organic chemists are aware of the influence of crystallization on the er value. Majority of synthetic organic chemists are, however, not aware, while employing standard chromatography, that there may be an increase or decrease of er value. In other words, an undesired change in er goes unnoticed when such a mixture of enantiomers is isolated by chromatography on an achiral‐phase because of the prevalent concept of basic stereochemistry. Such unnoticed errors in enantioselective reactions may lead to misinterpretations of the enantioselective outcome of the synthesis. The scientific issue is, what is the difference between a racemic and nonracemic mixture in achiral environment (e.g., achiral‐phase chromatography) that leads to enantiomeric enrichment, amounting to separation of one particular enantiomer? There are sporadic reports on enantiomer separation of nonracemic mixtures in an achiral environment particularly from the scientists working in analytical chemistry. To cover/discuss all these reports is out of the scope of this article. The aim of the present report is to draw attention to the following points: i) How should the synthetic organic chemists and analytical chemists take care of the unexpected separation of enantiomers from nonracemic mixtures in a totally achiral environment? ii) What are the technical terms used in recent literature? iii) The requirement of revisiting definitions/terms (introduced in recent years, in particular) to describe such separations of enantiomers in light of prevalent scientific/chemical terminology used in the ‘language of chemistry’, the text book concept, and IUPAC background. iv) To propose logical scientific terminology or phrases for explaining the possible mechanism of separation under these conditions. v) To discuss briefly the concept/possibile phenomenon responsible for these enantioselective effects. It is also attempted to explain the effect of change of physical parameters influencing the separation from nonracemic mixture in achiral‐phase chromatography.     

第一个人工合成元素锝：化学家与物理学家合作的结晶

1871年，门捷列夫依据元素周期律和元素周期表预见了“类锰”（即锝元素）的存在；至20世纪，随着科学家对原子核变化的研究进展、回旋加速器的发明以及人工放射性元素的发现，化学家和物理学家一起用回旋加速器加速的氚核轰击钼靶得到了锝元素。锝成为了第一个人工合成的元素，是化学家与物理学家合作的结晶。它的发现不仅显示了先进的科学方法和科学仪器的重要作用，也证明了学科间合作的重要性。     

What Do We Know about the Deeper Layers of the Earth?

In the last twenty years modern chemical and physical methods have done much to extend our knowledge of the Earth. Some new questions have been raised, e.g. the question of the bonding relationships in the Earth's interior, which make the Earth an interesting object of research to chemists as well. This progress report attempts to give a survey of the Earth's structure as seen at the present day. Naturally, special emphasis has been placed on those aspects which concern the chemist.     

Synthetic Gene Fragments in Genetic Engineering—The Renaissance of Chemistry in Molecular Biology

Chemistry and biology paved the way for a new scientific discipline, molecular genetics. The breathtaking progress in deciphering the genetic machinery of a living being within the last 20 years may be attributed mainly to the experimental skill and ingenuity of molecular biologists. Chemists lost interest in the investigation of biological problems. The advances in genetic engineering exemplify the new demands chemists are confronted with in contemporary science. Following a short introduction on the genetics of bacteria, the articles deals with the molecular basis of gene cloning, which is subdivided into in vitro recombination of nucleic acids and in vivo transformation of cells. Next, the criteria for the selection of passenger DNA, vectors, and host cells are discussed. Recombination and transformation are easy-to-learn experimental techniques, whereas the search for the positive clone requires detailed knowledge of microbiology and the ability to handle of a battery of modern biochemical techniques. Finally, the automated chemical synthesis of gene fragments serves to demonstrate that chemistry is starting to make its comeback into molecular biology.     

Photochemical reactions as key steps in five-membered N-heterocycle synthesis

The chemists have been interested in light as an energy source to induce chemical reactions since the beginning of scientific chemistry. This review summarizes the chemistry of photochemical reactions with emphasis of their synthetic applications. The organic photochemical reactions avoid the polluting or toxic reagents and therefore offer perspectives for sustainable processes and green chemistry. In summary, this review article describes the synthesis of a number of five-membered N-heterocycles.     

Ene-Reductase: A Multifaceted Biocatalyst in Organic Synthesis

Biocatalysis integrate microbiologists, enzymologists, and organic chemists to access the repertoire of pharmaceutical and agrochemicals with high chemoselectivity, regioselectivity, and enantioselectivity. The saturation of carbon-carbon double bonds by biocatalysts challenges the conventional chemical methodology as it bypasses the use of precious metals (in combination with chiral ligands and molecular hydrogen) or organocatalysts. In this line, Ene-reductases (ERs) from the Old Yellow Enzymes (OYEs) family are found to be a prominent asymmetric biocatalyst that is increasingly used in academia and industries towards unparalleled stereoselective trans-hydrogenations of activated C=C bonds. ERs gained prominence as they were used as individual catalysts, multi-enzyme cascades, and in conjugation with chemical reagents (chemoenzymatic approach). Besides, ERs’ participation in the photoelectrochemical and radical-mediated process helps to unlock many scopes outside traditional biocatalysis. These up-and-coming methodologies entice the enzymologists and chemists to explore, expand and harness the chemistries displayed by ERs for industrial settings. Herein, we reviewed the last five year's exploration of organic transformations using ERs.     

Sir Thomas Browne and the Study of Colour Indicators

Abstract

This reinterpretation of Carl Wilhelm Scheele's (1742–86) early life and career analyses the social interplay between Scheele and other chemists who were active in eighteenth-century Sweden. It is argued that Scheele, a rather lowly journeyman working in peripheral pharmacies, had to work hard and traverse several geographical and social boundaries to gain a foothold in the scientific community. Eventually, Scheele's skilful analysis of the mineral magnesia nigra would establish him as one of the pivotal Swedish chemists. However, this happened only after Scheele had managed to prove himself as a knowledgeable chemist who did not threaten the authority of certain socially superior colleagues. When Scheele had gained a place in the scientific community, the exchange logic of the eighteenth-century republic of letters permitted him to trade experimental results for other kinds of resources. Hence, he gained in both social status, economic prosperity and scientific prominence in a relatively short time.     

A neglected aspect of the puzzle of chemical structure: how history helps

Intra-molecular connectivity (that is, chemical structure) does not emerge from computations based on fundamental quantum-mechanical principles. In order to compute molecular electronic energies (of C₃H₄ hydrocarbons, for instance) quantum chemists must insert intra-molecular connectivity “by hand.” Some take this as an indication that chemistry cannot be reduced to physics: others consider it as evidence that quantum chemistry needs new logical foundations. Such discussions are generally synchronic rather than diachronic—that is, they neglect ‘historical’ aspects. However, systems of interest to chemists generally are metastable. In many cases chemical systems of a given elemental composition may exist in any one of several different metastable states depending on the history of the system. Molecular structure generally depends on contingent historical circumstances of synthesis and separation, rather than solely or mainly on relative energies of alternative stable states, those energies in turn determined by relationships among components. Chemical structure is usually ‘kinetically-determined’ rather than ‘thermodynamically-determined.’ For instance, cyclical hydrocarbon ring-systems (as in cyclopropene) are produced only in special circumstances. Adequate theoretical treatments must take account of the persistent effects of such contingent historical events whenever they are relevant—as they generally are in chemistry.     

Medicinal Chemistry in the Golden Age of Biology: Lessons from Steroid and Peptide Research

Collaboration between biologists and chemists has generated medicines of enormous benefit to society. The dynamics of this synergistic interaction combines two strengths: the rigor of chemistry and the ability of biologists to construct unifying concepts from diverse fields of investigation. The resulting contributions to the practice of medicine have reduced morbidity and mortality while increasing the quality of life. Building on the work of chemists such as Robinson, Prelog, Woodward, and Pauling, medicinal chemists have advanced rational drug discovery, especially of enzyme inhibitors, to a degree unthinkable even twenty years ago. Some of the major contributions of medicinal chemistry to human and animal health stem directly from the creative application of structural and electronic reasoning, from advances in instrumentation, and from spectacular progress in biology. However, medicinal chemists have only begun to scratch the surface of the opportunities made possible by the impact of the “double-helix revolution” of the 1950s.     

Chemical substances and the limits of pluralism

In this paper I investigate the relationship between vernacular kind terms and specialist scientific vocabularies. Elsewhere I have developed a defence of realism about the chemical elements as natural kinds. This defence depends on identifying the epistemic interests and theoretical conception of the elements that have suffused chemistry since the mid-eighteenth century. Because of this dependence, it is a discipline-specific defence, and would seem to entail important concessions to pluralism about natural kinds. I argue that making this kind of concession does not imply that vernacular kind terms have independent application conditions. Nor does it preclude us saying that chemists, with their particular epistemic interests, have discovered the underlying nature of water, the stuff that is named and thought about in accordance with the practical interests of everyday life. There are limits to pluralism.     

Professionalism and Ethics in Chemistry

This essay offers a preliminary philosophy ofchemistry as a profession focusing on professionalethics. First, I look at how well chemistry fits themodel of a liberal profession. I then explore therelationship between epistemology and ethics. Therelationship between chemistry and society isdiscussed in the context of the two-dimensionalclassification of research developed by Donald Stokesin his book Pasteur's Quadrant. Finally, Iraise the questions of an appropriate moral ideal forchemistry and the ethical conflicts that can occurwhen chemists simultaneously fulfill more than one role. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Emergence and quantum chemistry

This paper first queries what type of concept of emergence, if any, could be connected with the different chemical activities subsumed under the label ‘quantum chemistry’. In line with Roald Hoffmann, we propose a ‘rotation to research laboratory’ in order to point out how practitioners hold a molecular whole, its parts, and the surroundings together within their various methods when exploring chemical transformation. We then identify some requisite contents that a concept of emergence must incorporate in order to be coherent from the standpoint of the scientific practices involved. In this respect, we finally propose a relational form of emergence which pays attention to the constitutive role of the modes of intervention and to the co-definition of the levels of organization. No metaphysical distinction between the higher and basic levels of organization is supposed, but only a plurality of modes of access. Moreover, these modes of access are not construed as mere ways of revealing intrinsic patterns of organization but, on the contrary, are considered to be active elements on which the constitution of those patterns depends. What is at stake in this paper is therefore not an ontological form of emergence but an agnostic one which fits what chemists do in their daily work.     

Analytical Chemistry in France

Abstract

In this day and age it is not an easy task to describe in a few pages the current status of any scientific discipline. This is particularly difficult if one deals with a n area such as analytical chemistry in France which is on the upswing. The present wirteup is focused on developments in French universities since the war: we shall not deal with analytical chemistry in industry, even though chemical companies and the French Atomic Energy Commission have had a paramount influence on recent developments. Indeed, French analytical chemists are being educated mainly to serve the needs of industrial laboratories.     

Objects of inquiry in classical chemistry: material substances

I argue in the paper that classical chemistry is a science predominantly concerned with material substances, both useful materials and pure chemical substances restricted to scientific laboratory studies. The central epistemological and methodological status of material substances corresponds with the material productivity of classical chemistry and its way of producing experimental traces. I further argue that chemist??s ??pure substances?? have a history, conceptually and materially, and I follow their conceptual history from the Paracelsian concept of purity to the modern concept of pure stoichiometric compounds. The history of the concept of ??pure substances?? shows that modern chemists?? concept of purity abstracted from usefulness rather than being opposed to it. Thus modern chemists?? interest in pure chemical substances does not presuppose a concept of pure science.     

Structure and reaction based evaluation of synthetic accessibility

De novo design systems provide powerful methods to suggest a set of novel structures with high estimated binding affinity. One deficiency of these methods is that some of the suggested structures could be synthesized only with great difficulty. We devised a scoring method that rapidly evaluates synthetic accessibility of structures based on structural complexity, similarity to available starting materials and assessment of strategic bonds where a structure can be decomposed to obtain simpler fragments. These individual components were combined to an overall score of synthetic accessibility by an additive scheme. The weights of the scoring function components were calculated by linear regression analysis based on accessibility scores derived from medicinal chemists. The calculated values for synthetic accessibility agree with the values proposed by chemists to an extent that compares well with how chemists agree with each other.     

微波辐射下氧化N-烷基酰胺合成二酰亚胺

二酰亚胺是一个很有用的官能团, 它广泛存在于天然产物和有药物活性的分子中. 通过微波辐射条件合成它吸引了很多化学家的注意. 极性反应物可以吸收微波辐射, 化学家将微波应用于一些化学反应中. N-烷基酰胺(NH邻位有一个亚甲基CH₂)和N上没有取代的内酰胺可以被过氧化物和过渡金属盐氧化成二酰亚胺. 报道了在乙酸乙酯中过氧叔丁醇和乙酰丙酮锰(III)在微波条件(90 W, 5 min)下, 酰胺迅速、高选择性地、高产率地转变为二酰亚胺的方法.     

The chemistry and physics of zinc oxide surfaces

Metal oxides are virtually everywhere – only gold has the property not to form an oxide on its surface when exposed to the ambient. As a result, understanding the physics and chemistry of oxide surfaces is a topic of pronounced general interest and, of course, also a necessary prerequisite for many technical applications. The most important of these is certainly heterogeneous catalysis, but one has to realize that – under ambient conditions – virtually all phenomena occurring at liquid/metal and gas/metal interfaces are determined by the corresponding oxide. This applies in particular to friction phenomena, adhesion and corrosion. A necessary – but not necessarily sufficient – condition for unravelling the fundamentals governing this complex field is to analyze in some detail elementary chemical and physical processes at oxide surfaces. Although the Surface Science of metal surfaces has seen a major progress in the past decades, for oxides detailed experimental investigations for well-defined single crystal surfaces still represent a formidable challenge – mostly because of technical difficulties (charging), but to some extent also due to fundamental problems related to the stabilization of polar surfaces. As a result, the amount of information available for this class of materials is – compared to that at hand for metals – clearly not satisfactory. A particular disturbing lack of information is that about the presence of hydrogen at oxide surfaces – either as hydroxy-species or in form of metal hydrides.In the present review we will summarize recent experimental and theoretical information which has become available from single crystal studies on ZnO surfaces. While the number of papers dealing with another oxide, rutile TiO₂, is significantly larger (although titania does not exhibit a polar surface), also for zinc oxide a basis of experimental and theoretical knowledge as been accumulated, which – at least for the non-polar surfaces – allows to understand physico-chemical processes on an atomic level for an increasing number of cases. In particular with regards to the interaction with hydrogen a number of – often surprising – observations have been reported recently. Some of them carry implications for the behaviour of hydrogen on oxide surfaces in general. We will present the currently available information for both, experiment and theory, and demonstrate the rather large variety of this material’s surface properties.