Matrix infrared spectra and density functional calculations of transition metal hydrides and dihydrogen complexes

Metal hydrides are of considerable importance in chemical synthesis as intermediates in catalytic hydrogenation reactions. Transition metal atoms react with dihydrogen to produce metal dihydrides or dihydrogen complexes and these may be trapped in solid matrix samples for infrared spectroscopic study. The MH(2) or M(H(2)) molecules so formed react further to form higher MH(4), (H(2))MH(2), or M(H(2))(2), and MH(6), (H(2))(2)MH(2), or M(H(2))(3) hydrides or complexes depending on the metal. In this critical review these transition metal and dihydrogen reaction products are surveyed for Groups 3 though 12 and the contrasting behaviour in Groups 6 and 10 is discussed. Minimum energy structures and vibrational frequencies predicted by Density Functional Theory agree with the experimental results, strongly supporting the identification of novel binary transition metal hydride species, which the matrix-isolation method is well-suited to investigate. 104 references are cited.     

Design and Synthesis of Compartmental Ligands and their Complexes for the Production of Catalytic Antibodies

The synthesis and coordination properties of mixed N,O‐compartmental ligands is described. Macrocyclic ligands 8 and 15 were designed to mimic transition‐state analogs for the production of catalytic antibodies for C−H activation reactions. Reaction of 8 with vanadyl cations yields the dinuclear complex 9 , which was characterized by X‐ray crystallography. Amputated ligands 17 and 18 react with various transition‐metal cations to yield complexes designed to act as coenzymes for the catalytic antibodies. The Ni complex of 17 ( 19 ) was also structurally characterized by X‐ray crystallography.     

Carbon dioxide hydrogenation catalyzed by a ruthenium dihydride: a DFT and high-pressure spectroscopic investigation

Reaction pathways during CO(2) hydrogenation catalyzed by the Ru dihydride complex [Ru(dmpe)(2)H(2)] (dmpe=Me(2)PCH(2)CH(2)PMe(2)) have been studied by DFT calculations and by IR and NMR spectroscopy up to 120 bar in toluene at 300 K. CO(2) and formic acid readily inserted into or reacted with the complex to form formates. Two formate complexes, cis-[Ru(dmpe)(2)(OCHO)(2)] and trans-[Ru(dmpe)(2)H(OCHO)], were formed at low CO(2) pressure (<5 bar). The latter occurred exclusively when formic acid reacted with the complex. A RuHHOCHO dihydrogen-bonded complex of the trans form was identified at H(2) partial pressure higher than about 50 bar. The trans form of the complex is suggested to play a pivotal role in the reaction pathway. Potential-energy profiles along possible reaction paths have been investigated by static DFT calculations, and lower activation-energy profiles via the trans route were confirmed. The H(2) insertion has been identified as the rate-limiting step of the overall reaction. The high energy of the transition state for H(2) insertion is attributed to the elongated Ru--O bond. The H(2) insertion and the subsequent formation of formic acid proceed via Ru(eta(2)-H(2))-like complexes, in which apparently formate ion and Ru(+) or Ru(eta(2)-H(2))(+) interact. The bond properties of involved Ru complexes were characterized by natural bond orbital analysis, and the highly ionic characters of various complexes and transition states are shown. The stability of the formate ion near the Ru center likely plays a decisive role for catalytic activity. Removal of formic acid from the dihydrogen-bonded complex (RuHHOCHO) seems to be crucial for catalytic efficiency, since formic acid can easily react with the complex to regenerate the original formate complex. Important aspects for the design of highly active catalytic systems are discussed.     

Organoactinides promote the dimerization of aldehydes: scope, kinetics, thermodynamics, and calculation studies

Surprising catalytic activities have been found for the actinide complexes Cp*(2)ThMe(2) (1), Th(NEtMe)(4) (2), and Me(2)SiCp'(2)Th(C(4)H(9))(2) (3) toward oxygenated substrates. During the catalytic dimerization of benzaldehydes to their corresponding esters, complexes 1 and 2 gave 65 and 85% yield in 48 h, respectively, while the geometry-constrained complex 3 gave 96% yield in 24 h. Exploring the effect of substituents on benzaldehyde, it has been found that, in general, electron-withdrawing groups facilitate the reaction. Kinetic study with complexes 1 and 3 reveals that the rate of the reaction is first order in catalyst and substrate, which suggests the rate equation "rate = k[catalyst](1)[aldehyde](1)". The activation energy of the reaction was found to be 7.16 ± 0.40 and 3.47 ± 0.40 kcal/mol for complexes 1 and 3 respectively, which clearly indicates the advantage of the geometry-constrained complex. Astonishing are the reactivity of the organoactinide complexes with oxygen-containing substrates, and especially the reactivity of complex 3, toward the dimerization of substrates like p-methoxybenzaldehyde, m/p-nitrobenzaldehyde, and furanaldehyde and the reactivity toward the polymerization of terephthalaldehyde. Density functional theory mechanistic study reveals that the catalytic cycle proceeds via an initially four-centered transition state (+6 kcal/mol), followed by the rate-determining six-centered transition state (+13.5 kcal/mol), to yield thermodynamically stable products.     

Reaction mechanism of the reverse water-gas shift reaction using first-row middle transition metal catalysts L'M (M = Fe, Mn, Co): a computational study

The mechanism of the reverse water-gas shift reaction (CO(2) + H(2) → CO + H(2)O) was investigated using the 3d transition metal complexes L'M (M = Fe, Mn, and Co, L' = parent β-diketiminate). The thermodynamics and reaction barriers of the elementary reaction pathways were studied with the B3LYP density functional and two different basis sets: 6-311+G(d) and aug-cc-pVTZ. Plausible reactants, intermediates, transition states, and products were modeled, with different conformers and multiplicities for each identified. Different reaction pathways and side reactions were also considered. Reaction Gibbs free energies and activation energies for all steps were determined for each transition metal. Calculations indicate that the most desirable mechanism involves mostly monometallic complexes. Among the three catalysts modeled, the Mn complex shows the most favorable catalytic properties. Considering the individual reaction barriers, the Fe complex shows the lowest barrier for activation of CO(2).     

Computational assessment of electron density in metallo‐organic nickel pincer complexes for formation of PC bonds

Hydrophosphination is an atomically efficient method for introducing new carbon‐phosphorous bonds in organic synthesis. New late‐transition metal catalytic complexes are proposed to facilitate this process. These nickel‐based complexes are analyzed using semiempirical (SE), Hartree–Fock (H–F), and density functional theory (DFT) models. H–F proves to be ineffective, while the SE approach has limited, qualitative use. DFT shows electron density at the metal center suitable for catalyzing bond formation in the proposed, reductive hydrophosphination mechanism. It also shows that the pincer complexes under investigation are relatively insensitive to solvent dielectric constant and to the chemical character of the monodentate ligand, both in terms of electron distribution and in terms of molecular orbital energies. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Activation of Si–H and B–H bonds by Lewis acidic transition metals and p-block elements: same,but different

In this Perspective we discuss the ability of transition metal complexes to activate and cleave the Si–H and B–H bonds of hydrosilanes and hydroboranes (tri- and tetra-coordinated) in an electrophilic manner, avoiding the need for the metal centre to undergo two-electron processes (oxidative addition/reductive elimination). A formal polarization of E–H bonds (E = Si, B) upon their coordination to the metal centre to form σ-EH complexes (with coordination modes η¹ or η²) favors this type of bond activation that can lead to reactivities involving the formation of transient silylium and borenium/boronium cations similar to those proposed in silylation and borylation processes catalysed by boron and aluminium Lewis acids. We compare the reactivity of transition metal complexes and boron/aluminium Lewis acids through a series of catalytic reactions in which pieces of evidence suggest mechanisms involving electrophilic reaction pathways.

In this Perspective we compare the ability of transition metals and p-block Lewis acids to activate electrophilically hydrosilanes and hydroboranes. The mechanistic similarities and dissimilarities in different catalytic transformations are analyzed.     

Enantioselective C?C and C?H Bond Formation Mediated or Catalyzed by Chiral ebthi Complexes of Titanium and Zirconium

The development of catalytic processes that effect enantioselective bond formation under mild conditions is an important and challenging task in modern chemical synthesis. In this connection, chiral C₂-symmetric ansa-metallocenes (bridged metallocenes) have found notable applications as catalysts. This article discusses the chemistry of this class of chiral metallocene complexes with regard to their utility in catalytic and enantioselective C? C and C? H bond formation reactions. In addition, where applicable, a brief comparison with other related catalytic enantioselective processes is offered. Many of the reactions effected with high levels of enantioselectivity by catalytic amounts of these complexes are of great significance to the preparation of new materials and in the synthesis of therapeutic agents. For example, zirconocene complexes readily catalyze the enantioselective addition of alkylmagnesium halides to alkenes, and cationic zirconocene complexes may promote the highly stereoregulated copolymerization of terminal alkenes. Furthermore, the related chiral titanocenes are involved in an impressive range of useful asymmetric catalytic reactions, including the enantioselective hydrogenation of olefins and reduction of imines or ketones. This review attempts to bring together the practical aspects of the use of [(ebthi)M] complexes of Group 4 transition metals (catalyst synthesis and resolution), outline the manner in which the C₂-symmetric chiral ligands are believed to initiate stereoselective bond formation, and highlight the aspects of this chemistry that are less well understood and require further research.     

手性席夫碱配合物用于催化不对称环氧化

手性席夫碱过渡金属配合物可以高效催化烯烃不对称环氧化反应,因此其合成及催化性能研究一直以来受到广泛的关注.本文较详细地综述了最近十年来合成的手性席夫碱过渡金属配合物及其对烯烃环氧化反应的催化性能的研究进展.重点讨论了新型的对称和非对称salen型配体过渡金属配合物的合成及其应用,分析探讨了手性席夫碱过渡金属配合物作为催化剂的优缺点、催化机理和未来发展方向.     

冠醚化双西佛碱钴(Ⅱ)配合物的合成、氧合和催化氧化性能 研究

合成和表征了三个新的冠醚化双西佛碱4',5'-双(2-羟基苯亚甲基亚氨基)苯并-12-冠-4(L^1H2),4',5'-双(5-氯-2-羟基苯亚甲基亚氨基)苯并-12-冠-4(L^1H2)和4',5'-双(5-溴-2-羟基苯亚甲基亚氨基)苯并-12-冠-4(L^3H2)以及它们的钴配合物。在吡啶溶液中和不同温度下,测定了配合物的饱和吸氧量,求出了它们的氧加合常数和热力学参数△H°,△S°,并以这些配合物为催化剂,活化分子氧氧化环已烯制备环已烯酮,通过与未冠醚化的类似物作比较,讨论了冠醚环的引入对配合物与氧分子加合性能以及催化氧化性能的影响。     

ReBr(CO)_5-Catalyzed Knoevenagel Condensation

Knoevenagel condensations are especially important reactions for the synthesis of alkene compounds having electron-withdrawing groups such as COR,CN,COOR,NO2 etc. Recently, transition metal hydride ruthenium1, hydride and polyhydride rhenium2, and polyhydride iridium complexes have been found to be the efficient catalysts for Knoevenagle condensation. However the mentioned-above transition metal hydride complexes are not easily prepared. In addition, all of them are oxygen and H2O-sensit…     

Gold metal-catalyzed reactions of isocyanides with primary amines and oxygen: analogies with reactions of isocyanides in transition metal complexes

Despite its generally poor catalytic properties, bulk gold metal is observed to catalyze reactions of isocyanides (CN-R) with primary amines (H2N-R') and O2 to give carbodiimides (R-N=C=N-R') at room temperature and above. Detailed infrared reflection absorption spectroscopic (IRRAS) and kinetic studies show that the reaction occurs by initial eta1-adsorption of the isocyanide on the Au surface, which activates the isocyanide to attack by the amine. This attack is the rate-determining step in the catalytic cycle and has characteristics very similar to those of amine reactions with coordinated isocyanides in transition metal complexes. However, the metallic Au surface provides a pathway involving O2 to give the carbodiimide product whereas homogeneous metal ion catalysts give formamidines [HC(=NR)(NHR')].     

Synthesis, characterization, and catalytic activity of rare earth metal amides supported by a diamido ligand with a CH2SiMe2 link

A series of four coordinate rare earth metal amides with general formula ((CH2SiMe2)[(2,6- IPr2C6H3)N]2)LnN(SiMe3)2(THF) [(Ln = Yb(2), Y (3), Dy (4), Sm (5), Nd (6)] containing a diamido ligand (CH2SiMe2)[(2,6-iPr2C6H3)N]2(2-) with a CH2SiMe2 link were synthesized in good yields via reaction of [(Me3Si)2N]3Ln(III)(mu-Cl)Li(THF)3 with the corresponding diamine (CH2SiMe2)[(2,6-iPr2C6H3)NH]2 (1). All compounds were fully characterized by spectroscopic methods and elemental analyses. The structures of complexes 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 were determined by single-crystal X-ray analyses. Investigation of the catalytic properties of the complexes indicated that all complexes exhibited a high catalytic activity on the cyclotrimerization of aromatic isocyanates, which represents the first example of cyclopentadienyl-free rare earth metal complexes exhibiting a high catalytic activity and a high selectivity on cyclotrimerization of aromatic isocyanates. The temperatures, solvents, catalyst loading, and the rare earth metal effects on the catalytic activities of the complexes were examined.     

Isomerization of olefins on hydride-halide compounds of titanium and aluminium of composition LmTiH2AlXX′. The role of the cocatalyst and the geometry of the ligand environment of the titanium atom in catalytic hydrogen transfer

Using bimetallic complexes of the compositions (C₅H₅)₂TiH₂MXX′ and (CH₂)_n(C₅H₄)₂TiH₂AlXX′ (M = B, Al; X,X′ = H,Hal, Alk, n = 1–3) as examples, the rate of homogeneous catalytic isomerization of α-olefins has been studied under the influence of the ligand environment, the nature of the transition metal, and the substituent at M. Only titanium and aluminium complexes with non-rigid ligand environments and involving terminal AlH bonds show catalytic activity in the reaction. An alkyl isomerization mechanism at the heterobinuclear centre is suggested. The first reaction step involves coordination of an olefin at the six-coordinate Al atom followed by the insertion of the olefin molecule in the terminal AlH bond.     

Introduction of Constrained Cyclic Skeleton into β-Enaminoketonato Vanadium Complexes: A Strategy for Stabilization of Active Centre of Vanadium Catalyst for Ethylene Polymerization

Several novel mono( ?-enaminoketonato) vanadium complexes bearing constrained cyclic skeleton, including[(C6H5)C6H3C(O) = C(CH2)nCH = N ― Ar]VCl2(THF)2(V3a: n = 1, Ar = C6H5; V4a: n = 2, Ar = C6H5; V4b: n = 2, Ar =C6F5; V4c: n = 2, Ar =(C3H7)2C6H3; V5a: n = 3, Ar = C6H5), were synthesized and their structure and properties were characterized. The structures of V4 c and V5 a in solid-state were further confirmed by X-ray crystallographic analysis.Density functional theory(DFT) results indicated that these complexes showed enhanced steric hindrance around the metal center as compared with the acyclic analogues. Upon activation with Et2 Al Cl and in the presence of ethyl trichloroacetate as a reactivator, all of the complexes exhibited high catalytic activities(107 g PE/(mol V·h)) toward ethylene polymerization, and the obtained polymers exhibited unimodal distributions(Mw/Mn = 2.0-2.3) even produced at elevated temperatures(70-100 °C) and prolonged reaction time. When MAO was employed as a cocatalyst, they only showed moderate catalytic activities(105 g PE/(mol V·h)), but the resulting polymers had higher molecular weights(168-241 kg/mol). These vanadium complexes with cyclic skeleton also showed high catalytic activities toward ethylene/norbornene copolymerization. The produced copolymers displayed approximate alternating structure at high in-feed concentration of norbornene. The catalytic capabilities of these complexes could be tuned conveniently by varying ligand structure. Furthermore, the cyclic voltammetry results also proved that these complexes exhibited better redox stabilities than the complexes bearing linear skeleton.     

Structure and Reactivity of Late Transition Metal η3‐Benzyl Complexes

The coordination of transition metals to organic fragments can yield complexes with fascinating and unexpected binding patterns. The study of metal‐benzyl complexes has demonstrated the feasibility of η³‐coordination, which results in a dearomatized ring. These complexes also offer insight into reaction mechanisms as proposed intermediates in catalytic cycles. In this Review we discuss the synthesis and characterization of these complexes with late transition metals and the subsequent development of catalytic benzylic functionalization methods, including asymmetric variants.     

Transition metal-catalyzed formation of boron-nitrogen bonds: catalytic dehydrocoupling of amine-borane adducts to form aminoboranes and borazines

A mild, catalytic dehydrocoupling route to aminoboranes and borazine derivatives from either primary or secondary amine-borane adducts has been developed using late transition metal complexes as precatalysts. The adduct Me(2)NH.BH(3) thermally eliminates hydrogen at 130 degrees C in the condensed phase to afford [Me(2)N-BH(2)](2) (1). Evidence for an intermolecular process, rather than an intramolecular reaction to form Me(2)N=BH(2) as an intermediate, was forthcoming from "hot tube" experiments where no appreciable dehydrocoupling of gaseous Me(2)NH.BH(3) was detected in the range 150-450 degrees C. The dehydrocoupling of Me(2)NH.BH(3) was found to be catalyzed by 0.5 mol % [Rh(1,5-cod)(mu-Cl)](2) in solution at 25 degrees C to give 1 quantitatively after ca. 8 h. The rate of dehydrocoupling was significantly enhanced if the temperature was raised or if the catalyst loading was increased. The catalytic activity of various other transition metal complexes (Ir, Ru, Pd) for the dehydrocoupling of Me(2)NH.BH(3) was also demonstrated. This new catalytic method was extended to other secondary adducts RR'NH.BH(3) which afforded the dimeric species [(1,4-C(4)H(8))N-BH(2)](2) (2) and [PhCH(2)(Me)N-BH(2)](2) (3) or the monomeric aminoborane (i)Pr(2)N=BH(2) (4) under mild conditions. A new synthetic approach to the linear compounds R(2)NH-BH(2)-NR(2)-BH(3) (5: R = Me; 6: R = 1,4-C(4)H(8)) was developed and subsequent catalytic dehydrocoupling of these species yielded the cyclics 1 and 2. The species 5 and 6 are postulated to be intermediates in the formation of 1 and 2 directly from the catalytic dehydrocoupling of the adducts R(2)NH.BH(3). The catalytic dehydrocoupling of NH(3).BH(3), MeNH(2).BH(3), and PhNH(2).BH(3) at 45 degrees C to give the borazine derivatives [RN-BH](3) (10: R = H; 11: R = Me; 12: R = Ph) was demonstrated. TEM analysis of the contents of the reaction solution for the [Rh(1,5-cod)(mu-Cl)](2) catalyzed dehydrocoupling of Me(2)NH.BH(3) together with Hg poisoning experiments suggested a heterogeneous catalytic process involving Rh(0) colloids.     

Nickel and palladium <Emphasis Type="Italic">N</Emphasis>-heterocyclic carbene complexes. Synthesis and application in cross-coupling reactions

N-Heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) are widely used as ligands in catalysis by transition metal complexes. The catalytic activity of transition metal NHC complexes is much higher than that of the transition metal complexes bearing the phosphine and nitrogen-containing ligands. They show excellent catalytic performance in different transformations of the organic compounds, especially in the carbon—carbon and carbon—element bond forming reactions. Palladium NHC complexes are very efficient catalysts for the cross-coupling reactions. On the other hand, nickel is less expensive and regarded as a promising alternative to palladium and, therefore, it attracts increasing attention from the researches. The present review is focused on the recent advances in the synthesis of N-heterocyclic carbene complexes of nickel and palladium and their application in catalysis of cross-coupling reactions of organic, organoelement and organometallic compounds with organic halides.     

Hydrolytic Kinetic Resolution of Terminal Epoxides catalyzed by Novel Bimetallic Chiral Co (Salen) Complexes

Novel bimetallic chiral Co (salen) complexes bearing transition‐metal salts have been synthesized. The easily prepared complexes exhibited very high catalytic reactivity and enantioselectivity in hydrolytic kinetic resolution (HKR) of racemic terminal epoxides and consequently provided enantiomerically enriched epoxides (up to 99% ee).     

Mechanistic implications of the active species involved in the oxidation of hydrocarbons by iron complexes of pyrazine-2-carboxylic acid

The reactivity towards H(2)O(2) of the complexes [Fe(pca)(2)(py)(2)].py (1) and Na(2){[Fe(pca(3))](2)O}.2H(2)O.CH(3)CN (2) (where pca(-) is pyrazine-2-carboxylate) and their catalytic activity in the oxidation of hydrocarbons is reported. Addition of H(2)O(2) to 1 results in the formation of a dinuclear Fe(III)-(mu-O)-Fe(III) species characterized spectroscopically and by cyclic voltammetry. By contrast, treatment of 2 with H(2)O(2) results in the formation of mononuclear iron(II) complexes, [Fe(pca)(2)(solvent)(2)]. The experimental results indicate that the catalytic activity of the starting complexes 1 and 2 is strongly dependent on the species formed in solution.