Studies in some new initiator systems for vinyl polymerization. II. Ammonia–halogen system as the redox initiator

The ammonia–halogen redox system has proved a promising initiator for polymerizing a number of vinyl monomers in aqueous media. Chlorine and bromine are most efficient, whereas iodine fails to initiate polymerization, probably due to its inhibitive tendency. Endgroups are halogen and amine and total about 0.5 per chain. On the basis of results of endgroup analysis, a mechanism of initiation through halogen and amine radicals, mainly through hydrogen atoms, is suggested. Consistent with the proposed mechanism the endgroup profile changes significantly with changes in pH.     

Studies in some new initiator systems for vinyl polymerization. IV. Amino acids as the reducing component

Amino acids have been found to form good redox initiator systems with halogens (Cl₂ and Br₂), KBrO₃, KMnO₄, and Fe(NH₄)(SO₄)₂. The three systems, viz., glycine–Cl₂, taurine–Cl₂, and sulfamic acid–Cl₂ incorporate amine, carboxy (or sulfoxy), chlorine, and hydroxy endgroups in the resulting polymers, the monomer investigated being mainly methyl methacrylate. On the basis of endgroup results it is suggested that initiation through amino acid radical, chlorine radical and also through some hydroxyl radicals takes place. The probable termination mechanism is discussed.     

Studies in some new initiator systems for vinyl polymerization. Part I. Molecular halogens or halates as one component

Several new initiating systems involving a molecular halogen, halates, or perhalate as one of the components and a reducing metal salt, ammonia, an amine or an organic compound as the other component, have been introduced for the aqueous (and in a few cases the non-aqueous) polymerization of methyl methacrylate. Some of the resulting polymers have been subjected to endgroup analysis by the application of the ultrasensitive dye techniques recently developed in our laboratory. Reducing metal salt—halogen-initiated polymers are found to incorporate hydroxyl and halogen endgroups, while polymers initiated by amine—halogen systems incorporate hydroxyl and halogen as well as amino endgroups. However, in the ammonia—halogen system polymers incorporate only halogen endgroups. On the basis of the results of the endgroup analysis of the polymers an attempt has been made to explain the probable initiation mechanism with regard to the nature and identity of the initiating species involved in such processes.     

Ferrous-bromate redox as initiator of aqueous vinyl polymerization

Ferrous-bromate redox is a very efficient initiator for the aqueous polymerization of a number of vinyl monomers. With methylmethacrylate, polymerization takes place in dark and at temperatures starting from 0 °C onwards. Bromate, ferrous and monomer exponents are respectively 0.51, 0.43 and 1.32 and the overall activation energy is 7.47 Kcal/mole. Neutral salts depress the polymerization rate, while an emulsifier increases it. p_H of the medium has not much influence on the polymerization rate upto the value of 2.32. However, at p_H 1.39, rate is somewhat depressed. Endgroups incorporated are hydroxyl and bromine totalling to an average of one per chain. Based upon these findings suitable mechanisms of initiation and termination have been proposed.     

Some new initiators and inhibitors in vinyl polymerization

This work examines some discrepancies between claimed effects in polymerization of certain metal acetylacetonates. Cupric acetylacetonate inhibits the thermal polymerization of styrene but acts only as a retarder in the sensitized polymerization of styrene and in the thermal polymerization of methyl methacrylate. Aluminium acetylacetonate initiates weakly the polymerization of styrene, but ferric acetylacetonate does not influence the rates of polymerization of the above mentioned monomers.     

Oxoaminium salts as initiators for cationic polymerization of vinyl monomers

Oxoaminium salt ( 1 ), derived from 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (TEMPO, 2 ) by one-electron oxidation, could be an initiator for cationic polymerization of vinyl monomers such as isobutyl vinyl ether (IBVE), 2,3-dihydrofuran, p-methoxystyrene, N-vinyl pyrrolidone, etc., to give the corresponding polymers, when 1 had a low nucleophilic counter anion. Formation of the adducts of 1 and IBVE as well as ¹H-NMR and IR data suggested the formation of polymers containing N? O? C structure as the polymer head group. In the polymerization of IBVE, the effects of solvent and concentration of 1 were little observed, however the polymerization rate was dependent on temperature. Furthermore, the thermal reaction of the polymers obtained, which were regarded as prepolymers for block copolymerization and polymeric initiators for radical polymerization, was studied. For example, poly(2-benzylidene-1,3-dioxane) obtained by the polymerization of 2-benzylidene-1,3-dioxane with oxoaminium hexafluoroantimonate ( 1, X = SbF₆) was employed as an initiator for radical polymerization of MMA to give its block copolymer with PMMA. © 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Structure–initiator activity dependence of aminimides as thermally latent initiators in the polymerization of glycidyl phenyl ether

Novel aliphatic aminimides were synthesized from the corresponding carboxylic acid esters, 1,1‐dimethylhydrazine, and epoxides in 54–95% yields. Bulk polymerization of glycidyl phenyl ether (GPE) with 3 mol % of the aminimides was evaluated by DSC as a model process for curing of epoxy resin. All the aminimides showed no exothermic DSC peak below 120 °C but showed sharp exothermic peaks above 137 °C, indicating good thermal latency. Good relationships were observed between the calculated bond length from the carbonyl carbon to the α‐carbon of the aliphatic group (R C), DSC onset temperatures, and the thermal dissociation temperatures (T_d 's) of the aminimides. The aminimide with a longer R C bond length showed lower T_d and DSC onset temperature, that is, higher activity. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Polym Sci A: Polym Chem 38: 3428–3433, 2000     

Charge-transfer complexes as polymerization inhibitors. I. Amine–chloranil complexes as inhibitors for the radical polymerization of methyl methacrylate

Charge-transfer complexes of N,N-dimethylaniline (DMA) and triethylamine (TEA) with chloranil have been investigated as inhibitors for the sensitized polymerization of methyl methacrylate (MMA) in bulk and in solution. Complete inhibition is achieved by the complexes of both amines followed by retardation only in case of DMA. The higher inhibiting efficiency of the TEA complexes is attributed to their greater stability. The polymers formed in the presence of chloranil alone or its complexes with both amines are quinonoid and contain no combined nitrogen. The results support the idea that inhibition reaction involve electron transfer from the growing chains to the quinone, with formation of molecular complexes of polymeric cations and semiquinone anions. The latter are the actual inhibiting species, so that the efficiency of inhibiting depends on their concentration, which is determined by the stability of the molecular complexes formed. The inhibition reactions should accordingly be considered as oxidation–reduction processes in which the growing chains are the electron donors. The suggested mechanism affords an explanation for the great differences in the inhibiting power of a particular quinone for the polymerization of different monomers.     

Macroreticular redox polymers. III. Characterization of some hydroquinone–quinone redox polymers

A series of hydroquinone–quinone redox polymers on highly and lightly crosslinked macroreticular styrene–divinylbenzene matrices was characterized for redox capacity, reactivity, equilibria, and redox potential. The effects of cerium(IV), iron(III), and oxygen on determinations of redox capacity are described.     

硝酸铈铵均相氧化还原体系引发烯类单体聚合

研究了均相氧化还原体系硝酸铈铵/N,N-二甲基甲酰胺(CAN/DMF)在无外加还原剂的条件下,引发丙烯酸甲酯(MA),苯乙烯(St)和甲基丙烯酸甲酯(MMA)等烯类单体的聚合。该氧化还原体系在较低温度下能引发丙烯酸甲酯快速聚合,聚合速度随温度升高而加快。为烯类单体在有机相中聚合提供了新的均相引发剂。将六甲基膦酰三胺(HMPA)作为CAN的络合剂加入到聚合体系中,在较低温度(40℃)下能加速MMA的聚合,对St和MA亦有一定的促进作用。详细讨论了温度和HMPA量对聚合的影响。用1H-NMR对聚合物精细结构进行表征并探讨了引发机理。     

Metal chelates in vinyl polymerization. I. Ferric dipivaloylmethide as an initiator

The behavior of the chelate, ferric dipivaloylmethide, Fe(DPM)₃, in vinyl polymerization systems was investigated. The polymerization was found to be of free-radical nature. The rate of polymerization was proportional to the square root of the concentration of the chelate. The monomer exponent was close to 1.5 for the Fe(DPM)₃-initiated polymerization of styrene and methyl methacrylate. The kinetic and transfer constants and activation energies for these systems have been evaluated. Spectral studies revealed the possibility of a complex formation between the chelate and the monomer. A kinetic scheme for the Fe(DPM)₃-initiated polymerization is derived based on this initial complex formation.     

Studies on polymerization of vinyl acetate using ylide as an initiator and degradative transfer agent

Polymerization of vinyl acetate initiated by β-picolinium p-chlorophenacylide was carried out at 30, 35, and 40°C, using conventional dilatometric technique. The initiator and the monomer exponent values were 0.80 ± 0.15 and unity, respectively. The polymerization was inhibited in the presence of hydroquinone, but was favored by nonpolar solvent and polymerization temperature. The energy of activation was 90.3 KJ mol^?1. An average value of k/k_t for the present system was found to be 0.37 × 10^?2. The results are explained in terms of a radical mode of polymerization with degradative initiator transfer; the principal mode of termination, however, was bimolecular.     

Studies on polymerization of vinyl acetate using ylide as an initiator and degradative transfer agent

The polymerization of vinyl acetate initiated by β-picolinium-p-chlorophenacylide was carried out at 30, 35, and 40°C, using the conventional dilatometric technique. The initiator and the monomer exponent values were 0.80 ± 0.15 and unity, respectively. The polymerization was inhibited in the presence of hydroquinone, but was favored by nonpolar solvent and polymerization temperature. The energy of activation was 90.3 kJ mol^?1. An average value of k/k_t for the present system was found to be 0.37 × 10^?2 L mol^?1 s^?1. The results are explained in terms of radical mode of polymerization with degradative initiator transfer; the principal mode of termination, however, was biomolecular.     

A new multifunctional initiator system for the living cationic polymerization of vinyl ethers

Combination of hexa(chloromethyl)melamine (HCMM) and zinc chloride was found to be a multifunctional initiator system for the living cationic polymerization of isobutyl vinyl ether. HCMM was synthesized by reaction of hexa(methoxymethyl)melamine and boron trichloride. Characterization of the polymers by means of GPC and ¹H NMR showed that initiation was rapid and quantitative and that the initiator is hexafunctional, leading to six‐armed star‐shaped polymers.     

Studies in vinyl chloride polymerization. Determination of primary radical termination by initiator fragment method

The rate of vinyl chloride polymerization initiated by doubly labelled benzoyl peroxide in dichloroethane at 60° was measured dilatometrically. The extent of primary radical termination, evaluated from the assay of the polymer samples recovered at 10% conversion, is compared with values deduced from analysis of the kinetic data.     

Study on aqueous polymerizations of vinyl monomers initiated by metal oxidant–chelating agent redox initiators

In this study, a series of chelating type reductants containing redox pairs were tested as the initiator for aqueous polymerizations. The redox pairs consist of Ce(IV) or several first-row transition metals coupled with chelating agents of amino acids, dibasic acids, or diamine. The initial rates and limiting conversions of acrylamide polymerization initiated by those redox pairs were determined. The reductive reactivity of the chelating agents with Ce(IV) and the oxidative half-wave potential of Ce(III)-chelating agent/Ce(IV)-chelating agent were measured to evaluate the feasibility of these redox pairs as initiators. After the evaluation, the redox pairs other than Ce(IV)-amino acid type chelating agent were precluded to be promising initiators for aqueous polymerizations. Those Ce(IV)-amino acid type chelating agent redox pairs which could form at least two five- or six-membered rings were found to be potential initiators. The Ce(IV)-NTA pair was the most promising one. The mechanism of initiation of the redox pairs was proposed and further confirmed by the ¹³C- and ¹H-NMR spectra of NTA-terminated polyacrylamide. The complex formation constants (K) and disproportionation constants (k_d) of the Ce(IV)-amino acid type chelating agent redox initiators for acrylamide polymerization were evaluated. The factors governing the parameters of chelated complexes and the performance of polymerizations were discussed. These redox pairs were also used as the initiators for aqueous polymerizations of acrylic acid and acrylonitrile. © 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

The cupric sulfate–hydrazine system as an initiator of vinyl polymerization. I. The polymerization of methyl methacrylate in aqueous solution in the presence of oxygen

The cupric sulfate–hydrazine system has been used to initiate the aqueous solution polymerization of methyl methacrylate at pH 9.25 in the presence of oxygen. At cupric sulfate concentrations greater than the saturation solubility of cupric hydroxide, hydrazine is adsorbed on, and decomposes on, the surface of the hydroxide. The kinetics of the decomposition are zero-order both in the absence and the presence of monomer. The initiation of the polymerization occurs both at the surface of the cupric hydroxide on to which some monomer is adsorbed and also in solution. Below the saturation solubility of cupric hydroxide, the initiation reaction between cupric ions and hydrazine occurs in solution.