Nonthermal microwave effects revisited: on the importance of internal temperature monitoring and agitation in microwave chemistry

The concept of nonthermal microwave effects has received considerable attention in recent years and is the subject of intense debate in the scientific community. Nonthermal microwave effects have been postulated to result from a direct stabilizing interaction of the electric field with specific (polar) molecules in the reaction medium that is not related to a macroscopic temperature effect. In order to probe the existence of nonthermal microwave effects, four synthetic transformations (Diels-Alder cycloaddition, alkylation of triphenylphosphine and 1,2,4-triazole, direct amide bond formation) were reevaluated under both microwave dielectric heating and conventional thermal heating. In all four cases, previous studies have claimed the existence of nonthermal microwave effects in these reactions. Experimentally, significant differences in conversion and/or product distribution comparing the conventionally and microwave-heated experiments performed at the same measured reaction temperature were found. The current reevaluation of these reactions was performed in a dedicated reactor setup that allowed accurate internal reaction temperature measurements using a multiple fiber-optic probe system. Using this technology, the importance of efficient stirring and internal temperature measurement in microwave-heated reactions was made evident. Inefficient agitation leads to temperature gradients within the reaction mixture due to field inhomogeneities in the microwave cavity. Using external infrared temperature sensors in some cases results in significant inaccuracies in the temperature measurement. Applying the fiber-optic probe temperature monitoring device, a critical reevaluation of all four reactions has provided no evidence for the existence of nonthermal microwave effects. Ensuring efficient agitation of the reaction mixture via magnetic stirring, no significant differences in terms of conversion and selectivity between experiments performed under microwave or oil bath conditions at the same internally measured reaction temperatures were experienced. The observed effects were purely thermal and not related to the microwave field.     

Theoretical verification of nonthermal microwave effects on intramolecular reactions

There have been a growing number of articles that report dramatic improvements in the experimental performance of chemical reactions by microwave irradiation compared to that under conventional heating conditions. We theoretically examined whether nonthermal microwave effects on intramolecular reactions exist or not, in particular, on Newman-Kwart rearrangements and intramolecular Diels-Alder reactions. The reaction rates of the former calculated by the transition state theory, which consider only the thermal effects of microwaves, agree quantitatively with experimental data, and thus, the increases in reaction rates can be ascribed to dielectric heating of the solvent by microwaves. In contrast, for the latter, the temperature dependence of reaction rates can be explained qualitatively by thermal effects but the possibility of nonthermal effects still remains regardless of whether competitive processes are present or not. The effective intramolecular potential energy surface in the presence of a microwave field suggests that nonthermal effects arising from potential distortion are vanishingly small in intramolecular reactions. It is useful in the elucidation of the reaction mechanisms of microwave synthesis to apply the present theoretical approach with reference to the experiments where thermal and nonthermal effects are separated by screening microwave fields.     

Microwave Effects Due to Anionic or Cationic Initiators in Emulsion Polymerization Reactions

Summary: Emulsion polymerization reactions were performed under microwave irradiation and conventional heating using anionic or cationic initiators and surfactants. Microwave irradiation promoted higher reaction rates for both initiators and surfactants, in comparison with the conventional heating. The effect of high power microwave irradiation was studied using a method of cycles of heating and cooling, where rapid polymerization reactions were obtained. In the reactions with anionic initiator and surfactant, a decrease in the particle diameters was observed with microwave heating, and even smaller particles were obtained using high power microwave irradiation. Moreover, the decrease in the particle size was acompanied by an increase in the polymer molecular weight. On the other hand, these effects were not observed for reactions with cationic initiator and surfactant.     

Nonthermal Effect of Microwave Irradiation in Nonaqueous Enzymatic Esterification

Microwave has nonthermal effects on enzymatic reactions, mainly caused by the polarities of the solvents and substrates. In this experiment, a model reaction with caprylic acid and butanol that was catalyzed by lipase from Mucor miehei in alkanes or arenes was employed to investigate the nonthermal effect in nonaqueous enzymatic esterification. With the comparison of the esterification carried by conventional heating and consecutive microwave irradiation, the positive nonthermal effect on the initial reaction rates was found substrate concentration-dependent and could be vanished ostensibly when the substrate concentration was over 2.0 mol L⁻¹. The polar parameter log P well correlates the solvent polarity with the microwave effect, comparing to dielectric constant and assayed solvatochromic solvent polarity parameters. The log P rule presented in conventional heating-enzymatic esterification still fits in the microwaved enzymatic esterification. Alkanes or arenes with higher log P provided positive nonthermal effect in the range of 2 ≤ log P ≤ 4, but yielded a dramatic decrement after log P = 4. Isomers of same log P with higher dielectric constant received stronger positive nonthermal effect. With lower substrate concentration, the total log P of the reaction mixture has no obvious functional relation with the microwave effect.     

微波与有机化学反应的选择性*

本文综述了微波辅助下有机化学反应的选择性,包括化学选择性、区域选择性、顺反选择性、非对映选择性、对映选择性,与传统加热条件下反应选择性的区别。讨论了微波对有机化学反应选择性的影响。从文献报道的结果来看,虽然观察到了一些反应在微波照射与加热条件下显示出不同的选择性,但绝大部分例子并不是在严格相同的条件下进行的对比,还有一些虽然做了对比研究,但却忽略了温度的影响。对于绝大多数例子,微波产生的选择性的差别似乎都可以用热效应来解释。可以认为微波辅助的反应中基本不存在特殊的"非热效应"。微波辅助技术可以通过改变反应温度来实现改变某些反应的选择性。希望本文对微波效应和微波对有机反应加速效应的本质的理解提供一些有用信息。     

Sintered Silicon Carbide: A New Ceramic Vessel Material for Microwave Chemistry in Single‐Mode Reactors

Silicon carbide (SiC) is a strongly microwave absorbing chemically inert ceramic material that can be utilized at extremely high temperatures due to its high melting point and very low thermal expansion coefficient. Microwave irradiation induces a flow of electrons in the semiconducting ceramic that heats the material very efficiently through resistance heating mechanisms. The use of SiC carbide reaction vessels in combination with a single‐mode microwave reactor provides an almost complete shielding of the contents inside from the electromagnetic field. Therefore, such experiments do not involve electromagnetic field effects on the chemistry, since the semiconducting ceramic vial effectively prevents microwave irradiation from penetrating the reaction mixture. The involvement of electromagnetic field effects (specific/nonthermal microwave effects) on 21 selected chemical transformations was evaluated by comparing the results obtained in microwave‐transparent Pyrex vials with experiments performed in SiC vials at the same reaction temperature. For most of the 21 reactions, the outcome in terms of conversion/purity/product yields using the two different vial types was virtually identical, indicating that the electromagnetic field had no direct influence on the reaction pathway. Due to the high chemical resistance of SiC, reactions involving corrosive reagents can be performed without degradation of the vessel material. Examples include high‐temperature fluorine–chlorine exchange reactions using triethylamine trihydrofluoride, and the hydrolysis of nitriles with aqueous potassium hydroxide. The unique combination of high microwave absorptivity, thermal conductivity, and effusivity on the one hand, and excellent temperature, pressure and corrosion resistance on the other hand, makes this material ideal for the fabrication of reaction vessels for use in microwave reactors.     

Diastereoselectivity in the Staudinger reaction: a useful probe for investigation of nonthermal microwave effects

The effect of microwave irradiation on the selectivity, especially stereoselectivity, is one of the most important issues in microwave-assisted organic reactions. The diastereoselectivity in Staudinger reactions involving the representative ketenes and the corresponding matched imines has been used as a probe to investigate carefully the existence of the specific nonthermal microwave effects. The results indicate that the microwave irradiation-controlled stereoselectivity in the Staudinger reaction is in fact the contribution of temperature. No specific nonthermal microwave effect was found in the Staudinger reaction.     

Sulfuric acid catalyzed addition of β-dicarbonyl compounds to alcohols under conventional heating and microwave-assisted conditions

The highly efficient direct addition of β-dicarbonyl compounds to secondary alcohols has been achieved using one of the cheapest acids, H₂SO₄, as the catalyst. For a series of β-dicarbonyl compounds and various secondary alcohols, the addition reactions all complete in 5 min with high yields both under the conventional heating condition and under the microwave heating condition. The comparison of the results obtained from the microwave heating condition with those obtained from the conventional heating condition shows that no obvious specific or nonthermal microwave effects exist in the microwave-assisted addition reactions.     

Microwave-assisted rapid decomposition of persulfate

Microwave irradiation has been a promising alternative to conduct several chemical reactions. In this work the microwave effects in potassium persulfate decomposition rate, under controlled conditions of temperature and microwave power, were evaluated. Higher decomposition rate constants were obtained in microwave irradiated reactions in comparison with conventional heated ones. To study the effect of high power microwave irradiation, a pulsed irradiation strategy was developed, in which the samples were repeatedly heated within short intervals of time at high power levels (500 or 1400 W). A great decomposition percentage was achieved in shorter irradiation times, showing the kinetic advantages of microwave-assisted reactions. However, it was found no differences in the reaction yields, even when high power levels were involved, proving that microwave enhancements may arise only from the ability to quickly provide a large amount of energy to the reaction medium.     

Microwaves in organic synthesis. Thermal and non-thermal microwave effects

Microwave irradiation has been successfully applied in organic chemistry. Spectacular accelerations, higher yields under milder reaction conditions and higher product purities have all been reported. Indeed, a number of authors have described success in reactions that do not occur by conventional heating and even modifications of selectivity (chemo-, regio- and stereoselectivity). The effect of microwave irradiation in organic synthesis is a combination of thermal effects, arising from the heating rate, superheating or "hot spots" and the selective absorption of radiation by polar substances. Such phenomena are not usually accessible by classical heating and the existence of non-thermal effects of highly polarizing radiation--the "specific microwave effect"--is still a controversial topic. An overview of the thermal effects and the current state of non-thermal microwave effects is presented in this critical review along with a view on how these phenomena can be effectively used in organic synthesis.     

A critical assessment of the specific role of microwave irradiation in the synthesis of ZnO micro- and nanostructured materials

A rapid, microwave-assisted hydrothermal method has been developed to access ultrafine ZnO hexagonal microrods of about 3-4 μm in length and 200-300 nm in width by using a 1:5 zinc nitrate/urea precursor system. The size and morphology of these ZnO materials can be influenced by subtle changes in precursor concentration, solvent system, and reaction temperature. Optimized conditions involve the use of a 1:3 water/ethylene glycol solvent system and 10 min microwave heating at 150 °C in a dedicated single-mode microwave reactor with internal temperature control. Carefully executed control experiments ensuring identical heating and cooling profiles, stirring rates, and reactor geometries have demonstrated that for these preparations of ZnO microrods no differences between conventional and microwave dielectric heating are observed. The resulting ZnO microrods exhibited the same crystal phase, primary crystallite size, shape, and size distribution regardless of the heating mode. Similar results were obtained for the ultrafast preparation of ZnO nanoparticles with diameters of approximately 20 nm, synthesized by means of a nonaqueous sol-gel process at 200 °C from a Zn(acac)(2) (acac=acetylacetonate) precursor in benzyl alcohol. The specific role of microwave irradiation in enhancing these nanomaterial syntheses can thus be attributed to a purely thermal effect as a result of higher reaction temperatures, more rapid heating, and a better control of process parameters.     

A Critical Assessment of the Specific Role of Microwave Irradiation in the Synthesis of ZnO Micro‐ and Nanostructured Materials

A rapid, microwave‐assisted hydrothermal method has been developed to access ultrafine ZnO hexagonal microrods of about 3–4 μm in length and 200–300 nm in width by using a 1:5 zinc nitrate/urea precursor system. The size and morphology of these ZnO materials can be influenced by subtle changes in precursor concentration, solvent system, and reaction temperature. Optimized conditions involve the use of a 1:3 water/ethylene glycol solvent system and 10 min microwave heating at 150 °C in a dedicated single‐mode microwave reactor with internal temperature control. Carefully executed control experiments ensuring identical heating and cooling profiles, stirring rates, and reactor geometries have demonstrated that for these preparations of ZnO microrods no differences between conventional and microwave dielectric heating are observed. The resulting ZnO microrods exhibited the same crystal phase, primary crystallite size, shape, and size distribution regardless of the heating mode. Similar results were obtained for the ultrafast preparation of ZnO nanoparticles with diameters of approximately 20 nm, synthesized by means of a nonaqueous sol–gel process at 200 °C from a Zn(acac)₂ (acac=acetylacetonate) precursor in benzyl alcohol. The specific role of microwave irradiation in enhancing these nanomaterial syntheses can thus be attributed to a purely thermal effect as a result of higher reaction temperatures, more rapid heating, and a better control of process parameters.     

Investigation of the formation of CuInS2 nanoparticles by the oleylamine route: comparison of microwave-assisted and conventional syntheses

The formation of copper indium disulfide nanoparticles via the oleylamine route using copper iodide, indium chloride, and elemental sulfur has been investigated by applying conventional thermal heating as well as microwave irradiation. Oleylamine thereby acts as a capping ligand as well as a solvent. In an initial set of experiments, the onset of the reaction was determined to be around 115 °C by an in situ X-ray study using Synchrotron radiation. Using comparatively low synthesis temperatures of 120 °C, it is already possible to obtain nanoparticles of 2-4 nm with both heating methods but with irregular shape and size distribution. By applying higher temperatures of 220 °C, more crystalline and larger nanoparticles were obtained with slight differences in crystallite size and size distribution depending on the synthesis route. The size of the nanoparticles is in the range of 3-10 nm depending on the heating time. Using microwave irradiation, it is possible to obtain nanoparticles in only 90 s of total synthesis time. Control experiments to probe a nonthermal microwave effect were carried out ensuring an identical experimental setup, including the heating profile, the stirring rate, and the volume and concentration of the solutions. These experiments clearly demonstrate that for the preparation of CuInS(2) nanoparticles described herein no differences between conventional and microwave heating could be observed when performed at the same temperature. The nanoparticles obtained by microwave and thermal methods have the same crystal phase, primary crystallite size, shape, and size distribution. In addition, they show no significant differences concerning their optical properties.     

The physics of heating by time-dependent fields: microwaves and water revisited

Heating samples by microwave radiation is a particular example of the more general phenomenon where materials absorb energy from an external time-dependent field of an electric, magnetic, or mechanical nature. How this compares with conventional heating is a question of continued interest. Here, we show that the origin of the absorptivity determines whether energy accumulates in the slower configurational degrees of freedom or transfers rapidly to the phonon bath, where only the latter situation is equivalent to conventional heating. Based upon time-resolved measurements of the configurational temperatures, evidence is provided for simple liquids displaying nonthermal behavior if heated by external fields, with molecules being more mobile than expected on the basis of the actual temperature. However, water and related materials are the exception regarding absorptive heating, because energy is transferred to the phonons more rapidly than it is absorbed from the field, and nonthermal effects thus remain absent.     

Can "microwave effects" be explained by enhanced diffusion?

The "microwave effect" or non-thermal effects due to microwaves have been the subject of intense debate. This paper explores the following hypothesis: if the transport of an active species is a rate limiting step in a reaction, and if microwaves enhance the diffusion of that species, then the overall reaction rate would change under microwave heating compared with conventional heating. If the hypothesis is correct then it should be possible to pick those reactions that would speed up, slow down or stay the same, under microwave irradiation. One consequence of the hypothesis is that the equilibrium states (end point of the reactions) remain unchanged by microwave irradiation. The measurements and theory presented here strongly suggest that this hypothesis is correct.     

Non-thermal effects of microwaves on protease-catalyzed esterification and transesterification

The non-thermal effects of microwave irradiation on enzyme-catalyzed reactions have been evaluated by keeping the reaction temperature constant during irradiation. Subtilisin-catalyzed transesterification and α-chymotrypsin-catalyzed esterification have been carried out in six solvents of differing polarities and at three different temperatures. In all cases, microwave irradiation was found to increase the initial reaction rates by 2.1-4.7 times at all hydration levels. It is also shown that microwave irradiation can be used in conjunction with other strategies (like pH tuning and salt activation) for enhancing initial reaction rates.     

Microwave-assisted one-pot synthesis of substituted tetrahydrocarbazole and 8,9,10,11-tetrahydro-7H-pyrido[a]carbazoles

One-pot synthesis of one-substituted tetrahydrocarbazole and 4-substituted 8,9,10,11-tetrahydro-7H-pyrido[a]carbazoles from substituted quinolinylhydrazines and cyclohexanone in acetic acid was performed by microwave irradiation in a controlled temperature with simultaneous cooling system in closed vessel. The optimization procedures of process variables, power, temperature, and irradiation time are reported in detail, and the results from microwave processes are compared with conventional ones.     

Investigating the existence of nonthermal/specific microwave effects using silicon carbide heating elements as power modulators

The use of passive heating elements made out of chemically inert sintered silicon carbide (SiC) allows microwave transparent or poorly absorbing reaction mixtures to be heated under microwave conditions. The cylindrical heating inserts efficiently absorb microwave energy and subsequently transfer the generated thermal energy via conduction phenomena to the reaction mixture. In the case of low to medium microwave absorbing reaction mixtures, the addition of SiC heating elements results in significant reductions (30-70%) in the required microwave power as compared to experiments performed without heating element at the same temperature. The method has been used to probe the influence of microwave power (electromagnetic field strength) on chemical reactions. Six diverse types of chemical transformations were performed in the presence or absence of a SiC heating element at the same reaction temperature but at different microwave power levels. In all six cases, the measured conversions/yields were similar regardless of whether a heating element was used or not. The applied microwave power had no influence on the reaction rate, and only the attained temperature governed the outcome of a specific chemical process under microwave conditions.     

液相微波介电加热法制备纳米粒子的研究进展

随着纳米科技的飞速发展,合成纳米材料的新方法层出不穷。在这些新方法当中,液相微波介电加热法近年来得到了飞速的发展,引起了科学界越来越多的关注。本文介绍了近年来液相微波介电加热法制备纳米粒子的一些研究进展,主要是该方法在制备金属、过渡金属氧化物和金属硫族化合物纳米粒子中的应用,并且对该领域未来的发展作了一些展望。