Self-Adaptive Digital Volume Correlation for Unknown Deformation Fields

Experimental Mechanics - Digital volume correlation (DVC) has evolved into a powerful tool for quantifying full-field internal deformation. In existing subvolume-based local DVC, subvolume size and...     

An Improved Error Evaluation in One-Dimensional Deformation Measurements by Linear Digital Image Correlation

Simple analytical error formulas were derived for one-dimensional deformation parameter estimation by an image correlation analysis with linear subpixel interpolation. A two-parameter deformation function was used in the analysis to account for both rigid-body translation and constant displacement gradient in an image subset. Errors in parameter estimation were found to explicitly relate to the image grayscale error consisting of subpixel approximation, image noise (including quantization error), and subset deformation mismatch at each point of the subset. A power-law dependence of the standard deviation of errors in deformation parameter estimation on the subset size was established when random image noise was dominant and it was confirmed by the numerical results of both nonlinear and linear image correlation analyses of synthetic image pairs. The power-law relationship can be used to guide the selection of suitable image quality, subpixel approximation, subset size, and subset deformation function for the desired measurement precision of deformation parameters.     

High-Resolution Deformation Mapping Across Large Fields of View Using Scanning Electron Microscopy and Digital Image Correlation

This paper details the creation of experimental and computational frameworks to capture high-resolution, microscale deformation mechanisms and their relation to microstructure over large (mm-scale) fields of view. Scanning electron microscopy with custom automation and external beam control was used to capture 209 low-distortion micrographs of 360 μm?×?360 μm each, that were individually correlated using digital image correlation to obtain displacement/strain fields with a spatial resolution of 0.44 μm. Displacement and strain fields, as well as secondary electron images, were subsequently stitched to create a 5.7 mm × 3.4 mm field of view containing 100 million (7678?×?13,004) data points. This approach was demonstrated on Mg WE43 under uniaxial compression, where effective strain was shown to be relatively constant with respect to distance from the grain boundary, and a noticeable increase in the effective strain was found with an increase in the basal Schmid factor. The ability to obtain high-resolution deformations over statistically relevant fields of view enables large data analytics to examine interactions between microstructure, microscale strain localizations, and macroscopic properties.     

Identification of Material Parameters of PVC Foams using Digital Image Correlation and the Virtual Fields Method

This paper presents an effective methodology to characterize all the constitutive (elastic) parameters of an orthotropic polymeric foam material (Divinycell H100) in one single test using Digital Image Correlation (DIC) in combination with the Virtual Fields Method (VFM). A modified Arcan fixture is used to induce various loading conditions ranging from pure shear or axial loading in tension or compression to bidirectional loading. A numerical optimization study was performed with different loading angles of the Arcan test fixture and off-axis angles of the principal material axes. The objective is to identify the configuration that gives the minimum sensitivity to noise and missing data on the specimen edges, which are the two major issues when identifying the stiffness components from actual DIC measurements. Two optimized Arcan test configurations were chosen. The experimental results obtained for these two optimized test configurations show a significant improvement of the measurement accuracy compared with a pure shear load configuration. The larger sensitivity of the pure shear test to missing data as opposed to the tensile test is also evident from the experimental data and confirms the analysis from the optimization study. The recovery of missing data along the specimen edges is a promising way to further improve the identification results.     

基于双线性位移模式数字图像相关方法的误差分析及应用

探讨数字图像相关方法测试结果的误差分布规律对提高该方法的测试精度具有重要意义。本文从理论上分析了基于双线性位移模式数字图像相关方法的子区变形场测试误差分布规律,结果表明,当试件的真实变形可由双线性位移模式描述时,变形场最大测试误差通常出现在子区的边界或节点处。因此,若试件发生均匀拉伸等常应变变形,可利用相关系数选取一个最优子区,认为测得最优子区中心应变为试件真实应变。零变形实验验证了该测试方法的可靠性。最后对手机导光板试件在单轴拉伸载荷下的数字图像进行分析,并利用本文方法测试了其弹性常数。     

结合数码显微镜的数字散斑相关方法精度分析及应用

结合数字散斑相关方法和一种新型的显微镜数码显微镜,提出了一种测量多晶材料晶粒尺度面内变形的新方法,并通过零变形校准实验、重聚焦实验和平移实验等一系列验证实验分析了该方法的精度和实用性.作为应用实例,对一种镍基合金试件进行了单向拉伸和疲劳实验,得到了晶粒尺度下具有较大应变梯度的应变分布图像.结果表明,该方法能够得到精确的位移测量数据,是一种理想的测量晶粒尺度变形的光测方法.     

数字图像相关的噪声导致系统误差及散斑质量评价标准

数字图像相关中散斑质量评价标准应该综合考虑系统误差和随机误差的作用。之前的工作考虑了无图像噪声情况下插值引起的系统误差,本文则进一步研究了有图像噪声情况的系统误差,并与随机误差综合考虑提出了完善的散斑质量评价参数。本文推导了有噪声情况下系统误差的解析形式,揭示了噪声引入系统误差产生的内在本质在于插值引起噪声不确定性对亚像素位置的依赖。依据理论分析,插值噪声耦合函数的概念被引入,它由插值基函数平移平方和的斜率决定,表征了噪声引入系统误差随亚像素位置的变化。插值耦合函数将之前的研究成果纳入统一的理论体系,并从本质上解释了高阶B-样条插值对应的噪声引起系统误差较小的现象。数值模拟与本文的理论分析显示一致,在真实的亚像素平移实验验证中,本文将公式推广到非均匀噪声情况,并与实验结果获得了较好的吻合。基于对系统误差的理论分析,综合考虑系统误差和随机误差影响,提出了两种计算误差评估参数:总误差的最大值和平方平均值,并提出了快速估计算法且通过数值模拟进行了验证。计算误差评估参数实际也是一种散斑质量评价参数,提出的评估参数弥补了现存散斑质量评价参数未足够考虑插值影响的缺陷,是更完善的散斑质量评价标准。本文应用新提出的散斑评价参数对一些常见散斑图进行了评价,并将其用于对模拟散斑图的优化。     

Overview of High-temperature Deformation Measurement Using Digital Image Correlation

Background

Developments in digital image correlation (DIC) in the last decade have made it a practical and effective optical technique for displacement and strain measurement at high temperatures.

Objective

This overview aims to review the research progress, summarize the experience and provide valuable references for the high-temperature deformation measurement using DIC.

Methods

We comprehensively summarize challenges and recent advances in high-temperature DIC techniques.

Results

Fundamental principles of high-temperature DIC and various approaches to generate thermal environment or apply thermal loading are briefly introduced first. Then, the three primary challenges presented in performing high-temperature DIC measurements, i.e., 1). image saturation caused by intensified thermal radiation of heated sample and surrounding heating elements, 2) image contrast reduction due to surface oxidation of the heated sample and speckle pattern debonding, and 3) image distortion due to heat haze between the sample and the heating source, and corresponding countermeasures (i.e., the suppression of thermal radiation, fabrication of high-temperature speckle pattern and mitigation of heat haze) are discussed in detail. Next, typical applications of high-temperature DIC at various spatial scales are briefly described. Finally, remaining unsolved problems and future goals in high-temperature deformation measurements using DIC are also provided. 

Conclusions

We expect this review can guide to build a suitable DIC system for kinematic field measurements at high temperatures and solve the challenging problems that may be encountered during real tests.

     

Diffraction Assisted Image Correlation: A Novel Method for Measuring Three-Dimensional Deformation using Two-Dimensional Digital Image Correlation

Digital Image Correlation (DIC) provides a full-field non-contact optical method for accurate deformation measurement of materials, devices and structures. The measurement of three-dimensional (3D) deformation using DIC in general requires imaging with two cameras and a 3D-DIC code. In the present work, a new experimental technique, namely, Diffraction Assisted Image Correlation (DAIC) for 3D displacement measurement using a single camera and 2D-DIC algorithm is presented. A transmission diffraction grating is placed between the specimen and the camera, resulting in multiple images which are then used to obtain apparent in-plane displacements using 2D-DIC. The true in-plane and out-of-plane displacements of the specimen are obtained from the apparent in-plane displacements and the diffraction angle of the grating. The validity and accuracy of the DAIC method are demonstrated through 3D displacement measurement of a small thin membrane. This technique provides new avenues for performing 3D deformation measurements at small length scales and/or dynamic loading conditions.     

Quantification of Three-Dimensional Surface Deformation using Global Digital Image Correlation

A novel method is presented to experimentally quantify evolving surface profiles. The evolution of a surface profile is quantified in terms of in-plane and out-of-plane surface displacements, using a Finite Element based Global Digital Image Correlation procedure. The presented method is applied to a case study, i.e. deformation-induced surface roughening during metal sheet stretching. The surface roughness was captured in-situ using a confocal optical profiler. The Global Digital Image Correlation method with linear triangular finite elements is applied to track the three-dimensional material movement from the measured height profiles. The extracted displacement fields reveal the full-field kinematics accompanying the roughening mechanism. Local deviations from the (average) global displacements are the result of the formation, growth, and stretching of hills and valleys on the surface. The presented method enables a full-field quantitative study of the surface height evolution, i.e. in terms of tracked surface displacements rather than average height values such as Root-Mean-Square or height-height correlation techniques. However, the technique does require that an initial surface profile, i.e. contrast, is present and that the contrast change between two measurements is minimal.     

Full-Field Deformation Measurements in Liquid-like-Solid Granular Microgel Using Digital Image Correlation

This paper presents the experimental characterization of the in-plane deformation field at any depth within a granular support medium (GSM) called Carbomer 940 using digital image correlation (DIC) and particle image velocimetry (PIV). A method was developed to produce a 2D plane of randomly shaped speckles within the GSM for DIC. Four different needle diameters and four different speeds were used as test specimens representative of those utilized for 3D printing of soft matter in the GSM. The results can be used to determine dimensional tolerances and assessing interactions between multiple injection needles and acceptable spacing. The displacements in the direction of needle motion (u) and transverse (v) were obtained. Subsequently, the magnitudes were determined as a function of distance from the needle path and time history. Results show that near the needle there is a region of yielded/fluidized material and away from the needle path the material acts like a viscoelastic solid. Permanent deformation decreases with increased distance from the path and recovery is enhanced by reversing back through the path.     

用于物体表面形貌和变形测量的三维数字图像相关方法

使用单个摄像机的二维数字图像相关方法通常仅局限于平面物体的面内变形测量,而使用两个摄像机基于双目立体视觉原理的三维数字图像相关方法克服了这一局限,可对平面和曲面物体表面的三维形貌和载荷作用下的三维变形进行测量。本文介绍了三维数字图像相关方法的基本原理及其关键技术,并用两个典型的实验验证了该方法的有效性。     

Digital Image Correlation Study of Plastic Deformation and Fracture in Fully Martensitic Steels

Plastic deformation and fracture of two grades of fully martensitic steel are investigated with a miniature tensile stage, a custom image acquisition algorithm and digital image correlation. The image acquisition algorithm controls the camera framing rate according to user defined load, displacement and timing thresholds. This provides a greater number of images captured during periods of rapid load change over small displacements. True stress–true strain curves reveal substantial differences in material ductility and failure behavior. Fracture surfaces are examined using scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive spectroscopy to provide insight into differences in the tensile behaviors observed for these steels.     

散斑图像相关数字技术在薄壁钢管混凝土长柱变形测量中的应用

薄壁钢管混凝土构件作为新发展的组合构件,对其研究具有非常重要的意义。文中首先介绍了散斑图像相关数字技术的基本原理,然后给出了变形计算公式。为弥补传统测量方法的不足,在薄壁钢管混凝土长柱偏压破坏实验中,引入了散斑图像相关数字技术,对长柱跨中截面的全过程变形(位移)进行了测量,并对测量结果进行了分析与讨论,同时还与传统测量方法所得结果进行了对比分析。实验结果与分析表明:该方法具有较高的精度和工程可用性,可克服传统测量方法中的一些弊端,且对实验设备和测量环境要求不高,很适合现场非接触测量。     

基于时序变形预测的数字图像相关加速方法

利用数字图像相关求解连续变形物体的位移场和应变场时,会遇到处理速度非常慢的问题,原因是相关算法计算量大且忽略了物体在时间轴上的变形规律。本文提出了一种基于变形预测的数字图像相关方法,该方法利用物体在时间轴上的变形规律,通过已经得到的变形值来预测后面时刻的变形初值。首先分析了物体在时间轴上的变形规律,然后结合实际应用对其进行修正,得到物体下一步变形的初值,最后通过NR方法(Newton-Raphson Method)得到物体的位移场和应变场。通过计算机模拟和金属试件拉伸实验并结合GPU(Graphic Processing Unit)编程验证了该方法的有效性。计算机模拟和金属试件拉伸实验的计算结果表明,该方法能够在计算精度保持不变的情况下,使计算速度提高4~7倍。     

应用数字图像相关方法测量含缺陷试样的全场变形

利用数字图像相关方法测量表面带孔洞、裂纹、缺口等缺陷试样的全场变形是许多实际测量任务中经常遇到的问题。就此问题，本文阐述了一种先对要避免计算的缺陷区域进行标记，在随后进行的相关计算中直接避免这些标记区域的方法。在已计算得到全场位移的情况下，文中提出了基于局部位移场最小二乘拟合的方法来计算区域边界、孔洞、裂纹或缺口附近等区域应变。最后对单侧边带半圆缺口试样的单向疲劳拉伸实验的计算结果充分显示本文方法的有效性和可靠性。     

Real-time 3D Digital Image Correlation for Large Deformation and Rotation Measurements Based on a Deformation Transfer Scheme

Experimental Mechanics - With the recent increase in digital image correlation (DIC) applications, it is important to improve the computational efficiency of DIC and realize the closed loop control...     

Adaptive Rotated Gaussian Weighted Digital Image Correlation (RGW-DIC) for Heterogeneous Deformation Measurement

Background

Digital image correlation (DIC) has advanced to become a flexible, reliable and fast optical method for the measurement of non-contact and full-field surface deformation. However, the accuracy of existing methods in measuring heterogeneous deformation fields—especially for the high gradient strain field – can be improved.

Objective

In state-of-art local DIC applications, several methods have been put forward to adapt a subset to unknown deformation. Although improvements in performance using these methods are obtained, results are still ungratified for severely heterogeneous deformation such as the Star 2 and Star 5 images from DIC Challenge 2.0.

Methods

In this paper, a rotated Gaussian weighted zero-mean normalized sum of squared difference (RGW-ZNSSD) criterion function is proposed as the basis for RGW-DIC subset size adaptation. RGW-DIC can automatically determine the optimum weight distribution, hence self-adaptivity in subset size and orientation are achieved simultaneously.

Results

The effectiveness of the proposed RGW-DIC is verified using DIC-challenge 2.0 images and simulated sinusoidal deformation images. Results reveal that the adaptively determined subset weight distribution can significantly improve the accuracy of heterogeneous deformation measurement compared with traditional DIC and DIC with isotropic Gaussian weight functions.

Conclusions

The proposed RGW-DIC can be applied to unknown severely heterogeneous deformation measurement.

     

Mesh-Based Digital Image Correlation Method Using Non-Uniform Elements for Measuring Displacement Fields with High Gradient

A new mesh-based digital image correlation (mesh-DIC) scheme using non-uniform 8-node quadrilateral (Q8) elements is proposed to process displacement fields with regions of both high and low gradient. The effect of element size on Q8-DIC is extensively analyzed, and the results show that when the shape function of an element matches or over-matches the gradient of the displacement field, a larger element size can achieve better results. Conversely, when the shape function under-matches the gradient of the displacement field, a suitable element size should be chosen. Furthermore, a practical and effective method based on the residual error of the DIC calculation is proposed to automatically refine mesh with non-uniform elements. The effectiveness of this method is verified using simulated speckle images that contain one- and two-dimensional non-uniform displacements. The proposed method is also used to improve the accuracy of two experiments that measure displacement fields with high gradient.     

Micro- and Nanoscale Deformation Measurement of Surface and Internal Planes via Digital Image Correlation

The digital image correlation (DIC) technique is successfully applied across multiple length scales through the generation of a suitable speckle pattern at each size scale. For microscale measurements, a random speckle pattern of paint is created with a fine point airbrush. Nanoscale displacement resolution is achieved with a speckle pattern formed by solution deposition of fluorescent silica nanoparticles. When excited, the particles fluoresce and form a speckle pattern that can be imaged with an optical microscope. Displacements are measured on the surface and on an interior plane of transparent polymer samples with the different speckle patterns. Rigid body translation calibrations and uniaxial tension experiments establish a surface displacement resolution of 1 μm over a 5×6 mm scale field of view for the airbrushed samples and 17 nm over a 100×100 μm scale field of view for samples with the fluorescent nanoparticle speckle. To demonstrate the capabilities of the method, we characterize the internal deformation fields generated around silica microspheres embedded in an elastomer under tensile loading. The DIC technique enables measurement of complex deformation fields with nanoscale precision over relatively large areas, making it of particular relevance to materials that possess multiple length scales.